Sentence Constituents

& Word Order

Muthia Andini
Rinawati Pelawi
Sri Susanti
Trihartina Tampubolon
Weby Yolannisa
Sentence Constituents :
Basic Principles
What is a constituent?
A constituent is a group of words that belongs
together and behaves as a single unit.
Example:
Alex spent my money
The words my money belong together as a
unit, and so we say they form a constituent.
What are sentence constituents?
• Sentence constituents are a string of units or
blocks of a language in a certain order.
• Sentence constituents consist of words or
phrases.
Constituents
A B C
Henry eats snails
No one wants to eat snails with garlic and
butter
Types of Sentence Constituent
A. Form
1. Noun Phrases
2. Verb Phrases
3. Prepositional Phrases
4. Adjective Phrases
5. Adverb Phrases
Types of Sentence Constituent
B. Function
1. Subjects
2. Direct Objects and Object Verbs
3. Complements and Complement
Verbs
4. Indirect Objects and Two-Object
Verbs
5. Adverbials
6. Coordinating Conjunctions
Review of Clauses, Clause Types, and
the Order of Sentence Constituents
• Most clauses consist of subject and predicate.
• The sentences in the table show the five types of
predicate (and clause), and the order in which the
constituents occur.
 Additional Factors and Related
Issues
a. No-object verbs
• No-object verbs are not followed by objects
or complements.
• No-object verbs are sometimes called as
intransitive verbs.
Ex : The river has dried up
b. Verbs which belong to more than one
type
Verb Verb Type
Make He made all the Object
cakes
I’ll make them a Two-objects
salad
They made us Object-
prisoners Complement
c. Dummy subjects: it and there
• a dummy is a word which contributes no meaning
but is there because the clause would be
ungrammatical without it.
1.It
It is used for talking about whether and times.
Ex: it is raining.
2. There
There is used to say that something exists.
Ex: there is a scratch on the table.
 Typical Difficulties for Learners
1. Comprehension
• In reading, learners may struggle to
understand how the words group together
and whether a constituent is functioning.
• In listening, learners may struggle to
understand the sentences in which the
indirect objects come before the direct
objects.
2. Speaking and Writing
Learners may over-use the basic principle and
patterns of sentence constituents.
3. Missing Linking Verb Be
Examples:
My house very big
It very flat and lonely
4. The Position of Subjects
Learners sometimes reverse the order of subjects
and no-object verbs.
Examples: When began the war.
5. The Positions of Adverbials
Learners may place adverbials between verb
and direct object.
Example:
I like at the weekend to play tennis.
6. The Position of Direct Objects
Learners sometimes place direct objects
between auxiliary verbs and main verbs.
Example:
I don’t know where she has the key left.
7. Verbs which require or don’t require
indirect objects.
She told she was ill.
(Tell has to have an indirect object. Said would be
more appropriate)
They may also use indirect objects inappropriately.
She explained me how to operate the
machine.
(In this case, we would probably say She
explained how to operate the machine to
me)
8. Problems with Noun Phrases
Some learners may place adjectives or
adjectives phrases after nouns they modify.
Example : We live in a house very big.
9. Dummy Subjects
Learners often leave out dummy subjects
( ) Was very cloudy yesterday.
They may also use it in place there or a form of
have.
It is a problem with the TV in my room.
Have a cockroach in the bathroom.
 SENTENCE
CONSTITUENTS :
MAJOR VARIANTS
 1. Question Forms
Kinds of questions forms depend on the type of verb phrase.
1. Verb phrases (am, is, are, was, were) as a complement
verb.
 The reverse normal order : subject and verb
Example : are you ill?
Was Dad at home?

2. One or more auxiliary verbs (including modal verbs).

 Reverse the order of the subject and the (first) auxiliary
verb.
Example : Can Dad stay?
Have you been drinking beer?
3. Single –word verb phrases (present simple and past tense
of all main verb apart from be).
 auxiliary (do, does or did) to make the question.
Example : did you swim ?
Do you take sugar?

 We can add questions words such as why, how, where, etc

to the beginning of questions.
Example : Type 1 : Why are you ill?
Type 2 : When should I phone you?
Type 3 : Where did you swim?

 type 2-3 use to get information about object of a

sentence
4. This type use to get information about subject of a
sentence.
Example : Who killed Kennedy?
What’s happening?
The differentiate type 3 and type 4.
Type 3 :
Object Subject

Who did Kennedy Kill?

Type 4 :
Subject Object
Who killed Kennedy ?
 2. Fronting
Adverbials
 Generally come at the end of the clause.
Example : That’s an excellent idea on the whole!

In fact the position of adverbials is very flexible, and we often

‘front’ them.
Examples : on the whole that’s an excellent idea!

Fronted adverbial verb subject complement

In Britain alone is selective education reviled

Only at the far end was there light

 Adverbial and verb combinations
in speaking and writing, to orientate the reader to the
important new information.
Adverbial : a preposition phrase or the word there.
Verbs : live, work, stand.

Example : in this street lived the first printers and stained-

glass craftsmen

adverbial Verb phrase subject

in this street lived the first printers and stained-glass
craftsmen
Complements
fronted compliment occurs in short, pithy remarks,
exclamations and interjection.
It is primarily a feature of spoken English.
Example : Really ill I felt last night.

Complement Subject Verb phrase Adverbial

A funny language English is
Really ill I felt Last night

Also : complement + verb + S.

Example : worried to death were their parents.
Direct objects
occurs primarily in speech.
Examples :

Direct object Subject Verb phrase Adverbial

A right mess of it they Made
An awful We Saw On the way
accident here
 3. Dummy
Dummy subject ‘there’.
 Dummy subject there and a verb- either a form of be or
one of the following no-object verb : exist, remain, live,
happen, come.
 There are over 50 distinct  over 50 distinct ethnic
ethnic groups living in groups living in china.
china.

• It is true that in india...there

• ...a certain respect for and
existed a certain respect
understanding of Hindu
for and understanding of
traditions existed.
Hindu traditions.
Dummy subject it.
to avoid beginning a clause with a subjct which includes a
clause in its own right, and is threfore difficult to process.
For example, instead of :

(Complex) subject Verb phrase Object

That your ceiling fell down last makes No difference
week.

We can say or write :

Dummy subject Verb phrase object
it makes No difference that your ceiling fell
down last week
 4. Clefting
Clefting is a way of dividing a clause into two parts- the first
part beginning with it and a form of the verb be (eg , it was),
and the second part beginning with who or that.
It + be + spotlighted information + that or who
Examples : Julia phoned us  It was Julia who phoned us.
This spotlighted information can take the form of many types of
sentence constituent ( subject, adverbial, etc)
Subject : It was Julia who phoned us on Saturday
Adverbial : It was on Saturday that Julia phoned us.
Direct object : It was us that Julia phoned on Saturday.
Indirect object : Was it Mary (that) you gave the file to ?
Subordinate clause : It was in order to cheer up Julia that
we phoned them.
 5. Pseudo- clefting
begin with a question word (e.g. what, where) and introduce
the spotlighted information at the end with a form of verb
be such as is, was, has been or will be.
Question word + information + be + spotlighted information.
Subject : What drove us crazy was the noise.
Adverbial : When you may see him is on Sunday.
Direct object : What he needs is a good shake-up.
Indirect object : Who you should really give the gardening prize
to is the person with the best window boxes.
Complement: What she really feels is profoundly disappointed.
Subordinate : Why we came late is because we had to finish
the work ourselves.
 6. Position of Adverbials
Flexibility
Adverbials come at the end of the clause.
(ex : i’ll be there on Saturday)
Also can be fronted (ex: on Saturday i’ll be there)
Adverbial expressions can occur in a variety of intermediate
positions (after verb phrase or even within it).
Examples: Subject Verb phrase adverbial Complement
That ‘s on the whole an excellent idea.

Verb phrase
subject Aux verb adverbial Past Object
participle
i have On occasion eaten Raw fish
 Typical Difficulties for Learners
Comprehension
comprehension in longer and more
complex sentences.

Pseudo-cleft sentences.
 Learners may be puzzled or misled by affirmative
sentences which begin with a word that they instinctively
associate with questions.
Examples : what you need is a good, long bath!
When they’ll arrive is anybody’s guess.
Speaking and writing
 Leraners often miss (or reject) opportunities to spotlight,
emphasize or play down particular sections of information
by varying the order of constituents and words. 

Question forms
• When there is no question word.
Example : she went to london?
• Learners sometimes also make question by placing the
subject after a whole verb phrase instead of after the first
auxiliary verb.
Example : what is doing your sister ?
Avoiding dummy “it”
Learners whose first language is Spanish,
Italian, or Portuguese are inclined to leave out
the dummy subject “ it”.
Examples :
• Is nothing that we can do about it
• Is difficult to find time to write
 PASSIVE
CONSTRUCTION
STANDARD PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

 passive constructions are used:

 when the new or important information is:

1. What happened to the subject: I’ve been sacked.

2. Who or what did it: ‘Turandot’ was composed by Puccini

3. How it was done: the conference was badly organized.

when the agent is unknown or unspecified. Ex: no one

was injured.
 to avoid very long subjects – a passive construction allows
us to put a long and/or complex phrase at the end of a clause
where it is easier to understand than at the beginning.

Ex: many people have been refused help by the new

commission which was set up to look into possible abuses
in the allocation of social housing.

 to describe processes.

ex: the beans are picked in late summer and are left to
dry in the sun.
 to introduce argument, opinion or evidence in various formal
styles of discourse.
Ex: it is sometimes argued that…
a distinction can be made between…
 to describe procedure in formally reporting scientific
experiments.
Ex: thirty-eight subjects were interviewed in the first round
of interviews.
 to avoid the implication of personal involvement or
responsibility.
Ex: the vase got broken, mum.
 to describe claiming, blaming, acts of destructions or
emotional reactions by using certain verbs.
Ex: He is alleged to be in a sanatorium.
We have been inundated with gestures of support.
PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION USAGE
 Basic pattern: be + past participle
Ex: the whole house was/got flooded.
 Verb types:
1.object, ex: the wall was toppled.
2.Two-object, ex: the winner was given a silver cup.
3.Object-complement, ex: I think Helen is going to be
appointed chair of the commission.
 be and get as auxiliary verbs.
We choose get to suggest:
1.That the action is unexpected, involuntary or possibly
unwelcome.
Ex: when he picked up the phone, we got cut off.
2. An achievement based on something that has been built
beforehand.
Ex: she got elected.
3. An achievement in the face of difficulty.
Ex: I finally got admitted to hospital.
 full infinitive in passive construction.
Some verbs which are often followed by a that clause in active
constructions (believe, consider, say, think, understand) , are
followed by an infinitive when the verb Is passive.
Ex: she is thought to be genius ← people think (that) she is a genius.
He was said to have been fiddling the books ← people say that he
was fiddling…
Some verbs which are often followed by bare infinitive in active
construction (help, make) are followed by a full infinitive when they
are passive.
Ex: he was made to clear up the mess ← they made him clear up…
 it as the subject.
Verbs like believe, consider, say, think, understand, are
often used in passive constructions with an impersonal
subject (it), particularly in more formal written styles.
Ex: it is understood that no one speaks during the time for
private prayers.
 reduced relative clauses
Relative clauses that have a passive verb are often
reduced.
Ex: they produced various plans () drafted by different
consultants.(which had been)drafted.
CAUSATIVE PASSIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

 causative passive constructions are used:

 to describe what we arrange for someone to do for us

Ex: she goes to hospital and has her blood pressure

taken.

 to describe unfortunate experiences.

Ex: ho got his leg broken playing football.

CAUSATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS USAGE
 in causative constructions we use only object verbs.

Ex: I’ve had two of my stories published in science fiction

collections.

 have and get as auxiliary verbs.

We often use have and get interchangeably to describe things we

arrange to be done for us, although we tend to choose get when
some element of difficulty or achievement is involved, ex:

she has her blood pressure taken every month.

she never managed to get her symphonies played.

Standard and causative passive constructions:
common features
 Tense
 used with any tense, infinitives, and –ing form.
Exs:
when are you going to have that door fixed?
the gardens are to be landscaped.
I hate being patronized.
 Avoid two forms of be together (e.g. be being or been being)
and avoid future continuous or present perfect continuous.
Ex:
I asked the nurses to hurry because I didn’t want to be
being dressed when you arrived.
 word order: verb + prepositions combinations
In passive constructions, we still need to include the
prepositions, even though it isn’t followed by an object.
Exs:
has my suggestion been taken up?
she’s having the wiring looked at.

 typical difficulties for learners

1. Learners may fail to recognize a passive construction,
thinking that the subject of the sentence is the agent
when it isn’t.
Ex: a man was attacked by three women.
2. Leaving out auxiliary verbs
Learners may leave out the auxiliary verb before the past
participle.
Exs:
England beaten by Costa Rica in the semi-final
Catherine loved very much by Mr. Heathcliff
3. Choosing the wrong auxiliary verb
Learners sometimes mix up be, been, and being.
Exs:
our house is be renovated
their documents haven’t being accepted
4. Choosing the wrong form of main verb
Learners may fail to use a past participle form of the main verb.
Ex:
it has been shows that…
5. Choosing the wrong prepositions.
Some learners may systematically use the wrong preposition to
introduce the agent in passive constructions.
Ex:
Kennedy was killed from a man named Oswald.
6. Choosing the wrong verb.
Learners sometimes try to construct a passive form of a no-object verb.
Ex:
he was died in 1963.
7. Word order
Many learners make mistakes in the order of words in causative
constructions by combining the auxiliary have or get with the past
participle.
Ex:
I am having straightened my teeth.
she got mended her suitcase.
DISCOURSE
MARKERS
DISCOURSE THE FUNCTIONS OF DISCOURSE
MARKERS:
MARKERS ✘ To signpost logical relationship and
it refers to words and sequence (textual discourse
expressions (teachers markers)
and learners), adjunct
(for some grammars) ✘ To manage conversation
and words/expressions (conversation management
as linking signals (for discourse markers)
others grammars)
✘ To influence listeners/readers
(preparatory discourse markers)
✘ To express our attitude to what we
say and write (attitude markers)
Types of Discourse
Markers
1. Textual Discourse
Markers
✘ Numbering and Ordering Points
✘ Adding something
✘ Linking similar things together
✘ Introducing something that contrasts with expectations
✘ Causes and Results
✘ Generalising
✘ Exemplifying and narrowing down
✘ Re-stating
✘ Rounding off
 Numbering and Ordering Points

To make number points To show the order in

we want to make which things happened

✘ General Use: first, firstly, ✘ General Use: then, next

second (third, fourth, etc.), ✘ Mainly used: afterwards
secondly (thirdly, fourthly,
etc.), finally, last, lastly

✘ Mainly use in speaking:

first of all, in the first
place, last of all
Examples:
 Adding Example:
Something
• General Use: If your tooth really hurts you
additionally, also, should make an appointment
alternatively, further,
furthermore, in with the dentist. Besides, it’s
addition, instead, high time you had a check up.
moreover

• Mainly Use in speaking:

besides, on top of
this/that, too, what is
more
Linking similar Example:
things together
• To show that …the course is not subject-
something is
similar to what specific. Similarly, the
has gone course is not language
before. specific.
• To save us from
having to repeat
what we have
said and written.
• Example:
similarly, equally,
likewise
Introducing something Example:
that contrasts with
expectations …adult kept written
• To draw attention to records of child second
inconsistency language learners’
• General Use: however, in
contrast, in fact on, on linguistics output. In
the contrary, on the other contrast, here the term
hand, rather, still
• Mainly used in formal emphasises first-person
context: nevertheless, authorship.
nonetheless, yet.
• Mainly used in speaking:
though, actually, all the
same, anyway, as a
matter of fact, at the
same time
Causes and Example:
Results …plants growing in
• General use: so, compost-rich soil need less
then
pest and disease control.
• Mainly used in
formal context: So, rather than taking
consequently, exercise, use your muscles
hence, therefore, to turn your compost heap
thus
instead.
• Mainly used in
speaking: as a
result, in that
case
 Example:
Generalising
The inspectors made a few
• To make it clear criticism but on the whole
that something is they were very satisfied.
generally true.
• General use:
generally, in
general, on the
whole
• Mainly used in
speaking: by and
large
Exemplifying and Examples:
narrowing down  Humans, as we all know,
• To introduce have much in common
examples and with animals: the needs
specific intences. for food and shelter,
• General use: security and self-
notably, for preservation, for
example, for instance.
instance
• Mainly used in
 ‘Why don’t we meet again
speaking: say on, say, Sunday?’
 Re-stating Examples:

• To re-state what
we/others say or
 A: I’ve got too much to do
write in order to B: In other words, you
make it clearer,
don’t want to go out.
• To show that we are
not actually  She did not have a heart
expressing attack-that is, it wasn’t a
something new
‘coronary thrombosis’.
• General use: in
other words, that is
• Mainly used in
speaking: I mean, in
a sense
 Example:
Rounding off

• Examples: in …we’re running out of time

conclusion, so, in conclusion, I’d just
to conclude, like to ask you to think over
in my proposition…
summarise,
to sum up
2. Conversation management
discourse markers
 Conversation Management
Discourse Markers
No words Using words

1. Making a variety of For examples:

noises (intakes of actually, anyway, by
breath, sighs and the way, I mean, OK,
sounds like ‘mmm’ or now, right, well, yes,
‘ah’. etc.
2. Vary the speed and
pitch at which we
speak
3. Use eye contact, facial
expression and
gesture.
No Problem Meaning Examples

1 word/expression OK can mean ‘I accept your objection’

1 can have several or can introduce a change of topic or
meanings direction in conversation.
Some meanings can ‘I accept your objection’ can be
be expressed by more expressed by using ‘right’ and ‘OK’
2 than one
word/expression.
Many words and ‘Right’ can mean the opposite of wrong
expression we use to or left.
manage conversation
3 can have completely
separate meaning
and uses
Influence of regional, ‘Now’ is used particularly by teacher to
4 social, and individual indicate moving onto a conclusion.
variation
3. Preparatory Discourse Markers
 Preparing for
Examples:
something
unwelcome I’m afraid I can’t come
around tonight after all.
To alert people
that we are
about to tell Sorry, but I think your
them attitude is unacceptable.
something they
may not like.
 Introducing Example:
strong point
of view Frankly my dear, I don’t give
To reinforce a damn.
what we want
to say.

We can use
honestly and
frankly for this
purpose.
4. Attitude Discourse Markers
 Attitude Examples:
Discourse
Markers
Clearly, naturally, obviously,
Number of words
and expressions
of course, preferably,
that we can use regrettably, thank God,
to express our (un)fortunately…
attitude towards
or interpretation
of what we are
saying or writing.
 Types of
No Discourse Sentence Position
Markers
1 Textual and Flexible, except anyway, instead, though, too.
Attitude Ex:
Discourse Surprisingly, the car started
Markers The car surprisingly started
The car started surprisingly

2 Conversation • Put before the clause (at the beginning)

Management Ex:
Discourse OK. Lets’ get going.
Markers Right. Who is ready?
• Put before and after the clause
Ex:
You know, something worries me.
I’ve done this before, you know.

3 Preparatory Generally come at the beginning of what they refer to.

Discourse Ex:
Markers Sorry, you promised me you’d be here.
Frankly we’re not interested.
 Learners’
No Examples
Difficulties
1 Meaning ‘People told me to avoid going into the docks areas
late at night but on the contrary I am big and I can run
fast so I thought I would be safe there’

 Learners used ‘on the contrary’ to reinforce not to

introduce something which is the opposite of what
has gone before.

2 Style ‘…Then, there was deep dissatisfaction among military

personnel, many of whom had not been paid for over a
year. To top it all, the sacking of the entire cabinet was
more than anyone could bear’
 ‘To top it all is inappropriate in this formal context.

‘The whole office was in a bloody mess again last

night. Thus I had to stay behind and clear everything
up’
 Thus s inappropriate in this informal content.
 Learners’
No Examples
Difficulties
3 Word Order ‘I anyway wanted to speak to him before he left’

‘I by the way wanted to speak to him before he left’

 Inappropriate position.

4 Form ‘Thanks God I had backed up all the important files’

(forget the
precious ‘I’m afraid but I have had enough’
word and
form of
word
phrases)
Ellipsis and
Substitution
 What

ELLIPSIS

 Ellipsisis the omission of elements normally required by the

grammar which the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from
the context and therefore need not be raised.
 It happens when, after a more specific mention words are
missed out when the phrase need to be repeated.
 Two distinct types of Ellipsis

Textual Situational
ellipsis ellipsis

It’s informal and mostly Textual ellipsis occurs in

used in conversation. both speech and writing.
 Situational ellipsis

Situational ellipsis is, unsurprisingly, where the situation or

context makes the missing element clear. It’s informal and
mostly used in conversation.

For example:
A: ‘Would you like a cup of tea?’
B : Tea. ([I like] tea.

can easily become ‘Tea?’ – where one word (or a few words)
stands for a whole phrase.
 Textual ellipsis

 It could be defined as when we omit something that has already

been mentioned (so doesn’t need to be repeated), or when what
is missing is clearly recoverable from the text.

 It has more grammatical ‘rules’, than the situational ellipsis.

 It occurs most frequently after ‘AND’ and ‘BUT’

Leave out - subjects, verbs, articles and nouns if already
specified in previous clause.
 Textual ellipsis - after ‘and’ or ‘but’
Example :

 You ought to clean your teeth and brush your hair.

(You ought to clean your teeth and (you ought to) brush
your hair)

 Nick wanted a strawberry ice cream and Chrish a chocolate.

(Nick wanted a strawberry ice cream and Chrish wanted a
chocolate)

 I ordered ten boxes but they only brought eight [boxes].'

 Textual ellipsis –
adverbial and relative clauses
Reduced relative clauses and reduced adverbial clauses are also
often considered to be examples of ellipsis. With these, the missing
words haven’t necessarily been mentioned, but they are clearly
recoverable.

Example :

The dark-haired girl (who is) standing over there just smiled at you.

The police are interviewing a man seen just after the robbery. (a
man [who was] seen. . .)
 Substitution

Example :

Substitution - Replacing a verb

Substitution - Replacing a
noun (phrase):
X : What kind of cupcake
would you like?
Y : A chocolate one, please.
phrase:
I didn’t like the film, but
everyone else did (liked the
film)
 Substitution
 Substitution - “yes” and “No”
e.g :
A : have you ever gone to Singapore?
B : No (I have never gone to Singapore)

 Substitution - Replacing “adverbial of place and time”

e.g :
She invited me to her house but I wouldn’t go there if you paid me
(go to her house)

 Substitution - using “this/that” in replacing “longer stretches of

text”
e.g :
We’ve had a few unexpected problems. This/that is why I’ve called
another meeting.
 Ellipsis and Substitution Combined
Replacing predicate

 .

 .
 Replacing Subordinate Clause
 using ‘to’ or ‘not to’ to replace infinitive clauses,
e.g :
I invented them all to come but they didn’t want to (come).
Why did you give me a present when I told you not to (give me a
present)?

 Using ‘so’ or ‘not’ to replace that noun clauses after ‘think’ and ‘hope’, and the
question word itself to replace noun clause derived from questions.
e.g:
A: is she coming round:
B : I think/hope so. (I think/hope (that she is coming round.)

Note : the use of “to”, &“not to” are instance of ellipsis, while the use of “so” is a
an example of substitution.
 Typical difficulties for learners
 Comprehension
this is particularly the case with listening which can’t ‘go back’ what the
speaker said before.

 Speaking and Writing

Learners tend to avoid to use ellipsis and substitution, they may provide
more information than necessary.

 Definite and indefinite pronouns.

Learners often use definite instead indefinite pronoun

 Similarly, agreement and disagreement

Rather like question tags, learners often simplify the structure of phrases
such as so do I, neither should she, etc.