Lighter Than Air Heavier Than Air

systems systems

Aerostatic Lift + Dynamic Lift No Aerostatic Lift

Highly Fuel Efficient Fuel Inefficient

Less complex operating Complex mechanisms

mechanism

Fast
Slow (M < 0.25)

Are Less susceptible to

More susceptible to Weather changes
Manipal Institute of Technology
Weather changes Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
2/23/21 1
 Balloon
How does a balloon lift?

Why we need the equation of state?

 
𝑃𝑉 =𝑛 ℛ 𝑇 Ideal Gas Law

n = Number of moles = Mass/ Molar mass (mass of one mole)

 = Universal Gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol.K

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon
Rewrite the ideal gas law to different form,
𝐏𝐕
  =𝐧 𝓡 𝐓
 
𝑃= 𝜌 𝑅 𝑇  
𝐧=
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬
=
𝐦
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐌
 𝛒=𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲= 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 = 𝐦
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐕
Any point in a flow or atmosphere
  𝐦 𝐦
𝐏 ∗ = ∗𝓡∗𝐓
𝛒 𝐌
R = General gas constant = 287 J/mol.K for air
  𝛒∗ 𝓡
𝐏= ∗𝐓 = 𝛒 𝐑𝐓
𝐌

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

2/23/21 3
 Balloon

Molecular Weight
(kg/mol)
Air 0.02897
Helium 0.004
Hydrogen 0.002
Ammonia 0.01703
Methane 0.01604

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

2/23/21 4
 Balloon
How does a balloon fly?

What generates more lift: a helium

filled balloon or hot air balloon?
How many helium balloons are
required to lift a human?
Is the rigid airship the green aircraft
of the future?
Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
2/23/21 5
 Balloon
How does a balloon fly?
Aerostatic !!

Archimedes (287 B.C. – 212 B.C.)

- Understand the physical principle of floating

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

2/23/21 6
 Balloon

Gravity

What are the forces on this volume?

- Gravity force (down)
- Net resulting force of the surrounding on this volume (upward)

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

2/23/21 7
 Balloon

Gravity Force (downward):

 FG =m∗ g=ρ ∗ V ∗ g

Buoyant or Archimedes Force (upward):

F A =ρ ∗V ∗ g
 

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon
Volume of air Volume of lighter gas
Equilibrium of forces Net total force is up

 𝐅 𝐚𝐭𝐦  𝐅 𝐚𝐭𝐦

  =𝐦∗ 𝐠= 𝛒𝐚𝐭𝐦 ∗𝐕 ∗ 𝐠
𝐖 𝐖=𝐦∗
  𝐠= 𝛒𝐠𝐚𝐬 ∗ 𝐕 ∗ 𝐠

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon

To be in equilibrium:
Sum of all the forces around the volume = weight of the volume

How to calculate lift:

Lift = Weight of the air – Weight of the balloon

L=W air −W gas

 

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon
L=W air −W gas
 

L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g − ρ gas ∗ V ∗ g
 

  ρgas
[
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
ρair ]
  M gas   ρ∗ ℛ

[
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
M air ] P=
M
∗T

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon

  M gas
[
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
M air ]
Helium as gas
4
 
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g ∗ 1 −
[28.97 ]
  6
L ≈ ≈ 86 % Produced as lift force
7

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon

Lift of hot air balloon:

  ρhot air
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
[ρair ]   ρ∗
P=
ℛ
M
∗T

  ( P / R T hot )
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
[( P / R T air ) ]
  T air
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
[
T hot ]
Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
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 Balloon

Lift of hot air balloon:

  T air
[
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
T hot ] 𝐓
  𝐡𝐨𝐭 =𝐓 𝐚𝐢𝐫 + ∆ 𝐓

  T air
[
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
T air +∆ T ]
  T air +∆ T T air
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g
[ −
T air +∆ T T air + ∆T ]
Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
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 Balloon

Lift of hot air balloon:

  T air +∆ T T air
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g
[ −
T air +∆ T T air + ∆T ]
4 6
 
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g ∗ 1 −
[ 28.97]=ρair ∗ V ∗ g ∗
7 []
  T air + ∆T T air 6
[ −
T air + ∆T T air + ∆ T
=
]
7

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon
Lift of hot air balloon:
  ∆T 6
=
T air +∆ T 7

∆ 𝐓 =𝟔 ∗ 𝐓 𝐚𝐢𝐫
 

 
For an outside air temperature of 288K (15C)
∆ 𝐓 =𝟔 ∗ 𝐓 𝐚𝐢𝐫 =𝟔 ∗ 𝟐𝟖𝟖≈ 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝑲
 

This is hotter than a blow torch !!

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
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 Balloon
Using the formulae we can calculate the lifting capacity
per cubic meter of gas
T  =15 °C=288 K

 ρ =1.225 kg/ m 3

 
1 Helium:
  M gas 4
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g 1 −
[
M air ]
=1.225∗ 1 ∗9.81 ∗ 1−
28.97 [
≈ 10 N ]
Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
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 Balloon
 
1 120 air:
  ∆T
L= ρair ∗ V ∗ g
[
T air +∆ T ]
378
 
L=1.225 ∗ 1∗ 9.81 ∗
[ 288+378 ]
=6.82 𝑁

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon
How many helium filled party balloons would be required
to take-off for a person of 80 kg? A party balloon has a
volume of about 14 litres.

Typical volume for a 3-4 person hot-air balloon is said to

be 2500 m^3. What is the total weight of the balloon,
basket and payload for such a balloon, assuming the
mentioned maximum temperature of 288 K.

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon
When you get higher in the atmosphere, the air density
becomes lower. The balloon will expand because the
pressure is also lower. What will happen when the balloon
reaches its maximum altitude? What do you need to
know to calculate that maximum altitude?

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon

Consider a gas balloon just after its release at sea level.

The balloon does not change shape. This means on every
part of the surface of the balloon the forces are in
equilibrium, so apparently the inside and outside force
are equal. Still, the overall effect is that the balloon wants
to accelerate to go up. How is this possible?

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Balloon

What are the advantages of a balloon compared to a

winged aircraft in terms of lift? And air drag? So for what
types of flight is the balloon more efficient than the
winged aircraft?

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 Balloon

Parameters balloon of first human flight in a Montgolfiere

are said to be: volume 1700 m^3, lifting capacity 780 kg
(includes balloon, basket and payload). Use the standard
pressure at sea level: 1013.25 mbar

(a) What was the temperature of the balloon? Assume an

outside temperature of 10 degree Celsius.

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 Balloon

(b) Other sources say the balloon was 23m high and 14m
wide. Calculate the temperature inside the balloon for
this situation as well. ( Hint: Assume a spherical
balloon shape that is elongated in the vertical
direction by a factor 23/14)

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 International Standard Atmosphere

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 International Standard Atmosphere
Why a standard atmosphere?

ISA is a reference atmosphere for:

 Meaningful aircraft performance specification

 Pressure altitude definition
 EAS/IAS/TAS definition
 Model atmosphere for simulation & analysis

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 International Standard Atmosphere

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

2/23/21 27
 International Standard Atmosphere

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 International Standard Atmosphere
What do we need to define a standard atmosphere?

Physically correct:
Pressure increases due to gravity
Gas law

Two laws, while three variables define state:

Pressure
Density
Temperature

So by defining one state variable, we define the entire atmosphere by

applying the two laws of nature
Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
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 Hydrostatic Equation

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 Gradient Layer

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Isothermal Layer

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 Airfoil

• What is an airfoil?
• What aerodynamic characteristics are we
interested in knowing?
• What are the geometric parameters that
describe an airfoil?
• What are the factors that influence the
aerodynamic characteristics?

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 Airfoil Geometry
An airfoil is the 2D cross-section shape
of the wing, which creates sufficient lift
with minimal drag

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 Airfoil

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 Influence of Airfoil Geometry on airfoil
aerodynamics

What are some of the geometric factors that

influence the aerodynamic performance of an
airfoil?
– Thickness to chord ratio, t/c
• Location of max t/c
– Nose radius
– Camber
• Maximum camber
• Location of max camber

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Aerofoil Thickness

What is the influence of thickness?

 Influence of t/c on lift coefficient
 Clmax increases with increasing t/c up to t/c in the order
of 13-15% at t/c > 15% begins to Clmax decrease.
 Influence of t/c on drag coefficient
Cdmin increases with increasing t/c

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Leading edge nose radius

What is the major effect of the leading edge

radius on airfoil performance?
– Effects airfoil stall characteristics
• Small leading edge radius has a sharp stall
break
• Large leading edge radius has a gentle stall
break

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 Camber
What is the influence of camber on the
aerodynamic characteristics?
• Increasing camber increases zero lift angle of attack.
• Camber can be used to get a low drag coefficient at
the designed lift coefficient.
• The maximum lift coefficient of moderately cambered
airfoil sections increase with increasing camber.
• Camber can effect the stall behavior.
– For airfoil sections that have the maximum camber far
forward the stall is very abrupt

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 What other factors besides geometry influence the
aerodynamic characteristics?
• Aerodynamic coefficients are a function of
– Geometry
– Angle of attack
– Reynolds number
– Mach Number

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Angle of Attack

Angle of Attack

chor
 d lin
e
V

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Airfoil

Airfoils have been classified by the NACA and have been cataloged
using four digit, five digit and six digit codes.

A specific airfoil can be identified by

NACA WXYZ (Four Digit)

W – Maximum camber as % of the chord

X – Location of maximum chamber from L.E along the chord in
tenths of the chord length
YZ – Maximum thickness in % of the chord length

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Airfoil
This NACA airfoil series is controlled by 4 digits e.g. NACA 2412, which
designate the camber, position of the maximum camber and thickness. If an
airfoil number is 

NACA WXYZ 

NACA 2412
then:

W is the maximum camber divided by 100. In the example W=2 so the camber
is 0.02 or 2% of the chord ( 0% to 9.5%)
X is the position of the maximum camber divided by 10. In the example X=4 so
the maximum camber is at 0.4 or 40% of the chord. (0% to 90%)
YZ is the thickness divided by 100. In the example YZ=12 so the thickness is 0.12
or 12% of the chord. ( 1% to 40%)

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Airfoil

NACA VWXYZ (Five Digit)

V – Controls the camber and indicates designed lift coefficient

W – Position of maximum camber
X – indicates nature of camber (normal or reflex)
YZ – Maximum thickness in % of the chord length

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Airfoil
The NACA 5 digit airfoils use the same thickness envelope as the 4 series but
with a different camber line and numbering system.

NACA VWXYZ  (NACA 23012)

V, This digit controls the camber. It indicates the designed coefficient of lift (Cl)
multiplied by 3/20. In the example V=2 so Cl=0.3

W, The position of maximum camber divided by 20. In the example W=3 so

maximum camber is at 0.15 or 15% chord

X, 0 = normal camber line, 1 = reflex camber line

YZ, The maximum thickness as percentage. In the example YZ=12 so the

maximum thickness is 0.12 or 12% chord.

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 Pressure Distribution
99500

99550
99600
Upper Surface Pressure
Surface Pressue, P, N/sq m

99650
c
99700
n   ( Pl  Pu )dx
99750 0

99800
99850
Lower Surface Pressure
Net Normal Force
99900
99950

100000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Chordwise Distance, x, m

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Lift Coefficient versus angle of attack

From Introduction to
Flight by Anderson

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 Pressure Coefficient Distribution
p  p In free-stream:
cp  1
  V
2
p   p
2   c p 1 0
2
 V 2

p 0  p
1
 V2

c p0  1 1
2
1
  V  V
2 2
2 2

At stagnation point (V=0):

Positive Cp means the pressure is higher than the free-stream
(atmospheric) pressure, and negative Cp means suction relative
to free-stream pressure. The maximum, which occurs at the
stagnation point, is always 1.
Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering
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 Resultant Aerodynamic Force
Lift Total Aerodynamic Force
(Sum of Pressure and Shear)


V Airfoil
Drag

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 Lift & Drag Coefficients

l lift normal force

cl  1
V S
2

2

d
cd  1
V S
2
2

drag


chordwise
Chord
V Line force

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 Center of Pressure
The resultant aerodynamic force acts at the Center of Pressure
(c.p.), about which the moment is zero.

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Stalled Airfoil

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 Reynolds Number Effect

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Aerodynamic Center
Since the c.p. varies with a, it is more desirable to use a fixed Aerodynamic Center (a.c.)
as the point of action of the lift and drag. The pitching moment about this point can be
calculated, and is found insensitive to a. For most airfoils, the a.c. locates at around
quarter chord (x=c/4).

Pitching Moment
Coefficient:
m
cm  1
2
 V 2
Sc

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 Airfoil Aerodynamic Characteristics
at Re = 6 million

NACA 0006 NACA 2412

Zero-Lift Angle of Attack (deg.) 0 -2
Stall Angle of Attack (deg.) 9 16
Maximum Lift Coefficient 0.9 1.7
Lift Curve Slope (1/deg.) 0.1 0.108
Moment Coefficient (before stall) 0 0.05
Minimum Drag Coefficient 0.005 0.006
Max. Lift-to-Drag Ratio (L/D) 0.7/0.0076 = 92.1 1.0/0.0088 = 113

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 Computation Fluid Dynamics Simulation

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 CFD Simulation: Near stall

Manipal Institute of Technology Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

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 CFD Simulation: Fully Stalled

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