Analyzing Sponsorship Effectiveness in

Sport: A Cross-National Study

Mr. Noni Zaharia

Mr. Kurt C. Mayer
Mr. Eric Hungenberg
Dr. Dianna P. Gray
Dr. David K. Stotlar
 Global Sport Sponsorship
• Help surpass the challenges related with cultural and linguistic
obstacles (Amis & Cornwell, 2005; Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2007; Santomier, 2008)

• International firms need

to grasp the cultural
distinction between
countries (Craig & Douglas,
2001; Geng, Burton, &
Blakemore, 2002; Malhotra,
2001)

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 The Research Gap and Purpose
• Lack of understanding of sport sponsorship as part of
international marketing (Amis & Cornwell, 2005; Santomier, 2008)
• 1) test the cross-national application of five sponsorship
outcomes, and 2) examine what sponsorship effects would
influence purchase intentions at an international level

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Sponsorship Awareness
• Awareness may be country-dependent (Amis & Cornwell, 2005)
• People of collectivist cultures, familiar to symbols, signs, and
indirect communication, will process information differently
than people of individualist cultures, who are more verbally
oriented and accustomed to explanations and rhetoric (De Mooij &
Hofstede, 2011)

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Sponsorship Fit
• In individualist cultures, brands have to be unique and distinct,
whereas in collectivist cultures the brand should be viewed as
being part of a larger whole and a product of a trusted company
(De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010)

U.S. vs. The World

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Attitude Toward The Sponsor
• The U.S. has a short-term orientation cultural dimension, which
means that people from the U.S. have a respect for traditions
(Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010), such as the tradition to not have a
sponsor on a team’s jersey
(Lukas, 2009)

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Gratitude
• Trust, which is linked to gratitude (Kim, Kwak, & Bunds, 2012;
Palmatier, Jarvis, Bechkoff, & Kardes, 2009), has been found to be
influenced by national culture (Doney, Cannon, & Mullen, 1998;
Schumann et al., 2010)

• Collectivists have higher levels of trust than individualists

(Huff & Kelley, 2005), and hence higher levels of gratitude

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Purchase Intentions
• The greater pressure to conform to the in-groups that prevails in
collectivist countries can affect consumer behavior, while
members of individualist cultures are less likely to be pressured
to buy brands that are not meaningful to them (Foscht, Maloles,
Swoboda, Morschett, & Sinha, 2008)

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Data Collection

• Chelsea Football Club (CFC) official supporter clubs

• The online questionnaire was conducted in

English, due to it being the most commonly
used language in the selected countries

• 355 usable surveys: American (n = 121),

British (n = 103) and Indian (n = 131) CFC fans

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Measures
• The items were arranged in the same order for all three countries
and contained identical designs

• The participants had to input the jersey

sponsor within 20 seconds before being
automatically re-directed to the next
survey page

• Likert-type scales with 10 categories

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Data Analysis
• Assumptions

• Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MGCFA ) with

covariates (MIMIC) model (Behling & Law, 2000; Brown, 2006; Steenkamp
& Baumgartner,1998; Woods, 2009)

• Chi-square analysis
• One-way ANOVA tests
• Regression analyses
 

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Measurement Model and Invariance
Mean (M), Standard Deviation (SD), Factor Loadings, Composite Reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
b
Constructs/items M SD Loading CR AVE
a
Sponsorship Fit 7.00 1.96 .82 .53
There is a close fit between <sponsors name> and <team name> .791
<Sponsor name> and <team name> have many similarities .768
It makes sense that <sponsor name> sponsors <team name> .701
My image of <team name> is consistent with my image of <sponsor name> .659
a
Atittude Toward the Sponsor 8.23 1.62 .87 .70
I like <sponsor name> brand .947
<Sponsor name> is a very good brand of <product-category> .896
I have a favorable disposition/mood toward <sponsor name> .643
a
Gratitude 7.17 2.28 .92 .80
I feel grateful to <sponsor name> for its sponsorship to <team name> .948
I feel thankful to <sponsor name> for its sponsorship to <team name> .976
I appreciate <sponsor name> .751
a
Purchase Intentions 7.41 2.25 .88 .65
I will buy a <product-category> made by <sponsor name> .839
Next time I need to buy a <product-category>, I would consider buying <sponsor name> .839
I will be more likely to buy a <product-category> made by <sponsor name> over its competitors .857
The <sponsor name> sponsorship to <team name> makes me more likely to buy .677
a <product-category> made by <sponsor name>

Note:
a
Each item measured on a ten-point Likert-type scale with anchors: 1 = ”Strongly Disagree”, 10 = ”Strongly Agree”
b
All factor loadings are significant at p < .001
Model fit:χ²(101) = 314.321, p < .001, χ ²/df=3.112, TLI = .92, CFI = .94, GFI = .91, RMSEA = .077

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Chi-Square and ANOVA tests

y ANOVA Comparison of Sponsorship Outcomes by Country

U.S. U.K. INDIA

Variable M SD M SD M SD F Post-Hoc Tests
Sponsorship Fit 7.01 1.84 6.44 2.09 7.42 1.87 7.429** INDIA > U.K.**
Attitude 8.30 1.65 7.94 1.55 8.38 1.63 2.270
Gratitude 7.37 2.24 6.17 2.48 7.77 1.87 15.989** INDIA > U.K.**; U.S. > U.K.**
Purchase Intentions 7.68 2.21 6.66 2.34 7.75 2.10 8.428**INDIA > U.K.**; U.S. > U.K.*

Note:
Significant at: p** < .001; p*< .01

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Regression Analyses
Multiple Regression Results of Sponsorship Outcomes by Country
2 2
Sample D.V. I.V. F β p R Adjusted R
U.S. Purchase Intentions Sponsorship Awareness 28.938** -.059 .373 .499 .482
Sponsorship Fit .138 .102
Attitude Toward the Sponsor .554 .000**
Gratitude .105 .174
U.K. Purchase Intentions Sponsorship Awareness 29.454** .036 .598 .546 .527
Sponsorship Fit .151 .107
Attitude Toward the Sponsor .504 .000**
Gratitude .195 .027*
INDIA Purchase Intentions Sponsorship Awareness 27.778** .044 .501 .469 .452
Sponsorship Fit .169 .035*
Attitude Toward the Sponsor .503 .000**
Gratitude .134 .101

Note:
Significant at: p**< .001, p* < .05

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Purchase Intentions

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 The Strongest Predictor of Purchase Intentions

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 What to do?

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

 Limitations
• Bigger sample size

• More sponsorship outcomes and controls

• Just one team and sponsor

• Just 3 countries

• MGSEM

1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References

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1. Intro 2. Literature Review 3. Method 4. Results 5. Discussion 6. References
What company sponsors the jersey?