Mode of Production

Marxian theory begins with the simple observation that in order to

survive, man must produce food and material objects.

In doing so he enters into social relationships with other men.

From the simple hunting band to the complex industrial state,

production is a social enterprise.

Production also involves a technical component known as the

forces of production which includes the technology, raw materials
and scientific knowledge employed in the process of production.
• Each major stage in the development of forces of
production will correspond with a particular form of
the social relationships of production.

• Thus the forces of production in a hunting economy

will correspond with a particular set of social
relationships.

• Taken together, the forces of production and the

social relationships of production form the
economic base or infrastructure of society (mode
of production).
• The other aspects of society, known as the
superstructure, are largely shaped by the
infrastructure.
• Thus the political, legal and educational
institutions and the belief and value system are
primarily determined by economic factors.
• A major change in the infrastructure will therefore
produce a corresponding change in the
superstructure.
• Marx maintained that, with the possible exception
of the societies of prehistory, all historical societies
contain basic contradictions which mean that they
cannot survive forever in their existing form.
• These contradictions involve the exploitation of
one social group by another, for example in
feudal society, lords exploit their serfs, in
capitalist society, employers exploit their
employees.
• This creates a fundamental conflict of interest
between social groups since one gains at the
expense of another.
• This conflict of interest must ultimately be
resolved since a social system containing such
contradictions cannot survive unchanged
(forever).
• Thus, according to Marx, the major contradictions in society are between the
forces and relations of production.

• The forces of production include land, raw materials, tools and machinery,
the technical and scientific knowledge used in production, the technical
organization of the production process and the labor power of the workers.

• The relations of production are the social relationships which men enter into
in order to produce goods. Thus in feudal society they included the
relationship between the lord and vassal and the set of right, duties and
obligations which make up that relationship.

• In capitalist industrial society they included the relationship between

employer and employee and the various rights and duties of the two parties.

• The relations of production involve the relationship of social groups to the

forces of production.
• Thus in feudal society, land, the major force of
production, is owned by the lord whereas the
serf has the right to use land in return for
services or payment to the lord. In Western
industrial society the forces of production are
owned by the capitalist whereas the worker
owns only his labor which he hires to the
employer in return for wages.
 Stages of Society
• We have discussed historical materialism as a perspective as
well as a method. We have also seen that how Marx applied the
historical materialism methodology in explaining class conflict
and social change in society. We have also discussed the
concept of mode of production and its centrality in Marxian
theory.
• Let us now briefly discuss the various stages of human society
which Marx talked about, each being characterized by a
particular mode of production. Marx believed that Western
society had developed through four main epochs: primitive
communism, ancient society, feudal society and capitalist
society.
• Primitive communism is the only example of a classless
society according to Marx.

• Primitive communism represents the earliest stage where

forces of production were extremely simple and were
commonly owned. For example, in a hunting and gathering
band, the earliest form of human society, the land and its
products were communally owned.

• The men hunted and the woman gathered plant food, and
the produce was shared by members of the band.

• Classes did not exist since all members of society shared

the same relationship to the forces of production.
• Every member was both producer and owner, all
provided labour power and shared the products
of their labour.
• Hunting and gathering is a subsistence economy
which means that production only meets basic
survival needs.
• Classes emerge when the productive capacity of
society expands beyond the level required for
subsistence.
• This occurs when agriculture becomes the
dominant mode of production.