Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Introduction
Until comparatively recently, angles were measured on
surveys by compass as well as, though much less
accurately than, by theodolite.
The compass has one major advantage over the
theodolite, namely that it can, of course, find the bearing,
i.e. the direction, of a line relative to magnetic north.

A conventional theodolite cannot be used to find north without the addition of a

compass needle attachment which, of course, really turns it into a glorified
compass. 1

The transit or theodolite is an instrument that is used to measured horizontal and

vertical angles, with an accuracy varying from 1 to 60 seconds. It is initially a
difficult instrument to use but a working knowledge can be gained, fairly quickly
and each of its component parts are examined carefully.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Classification
Theodolites may be classified into
transit and non-transit theodolites.

1. Transit Theodolite
A theodolite is said to be a transit
one when its telescope can be
revolved through 180° in a vertical
plane about its horizontal axis, thus
directing the telescope in exactly
opposite direction. 1

The vertical circle is rigidly fixed to

the telescope and rotates with the
telescope.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

2. Non-Transit Theodolite
A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one
when its telescope cannot be revolved
through 180° in a vertical plane about its
horizontal axis.
Such theodolite are obsolete nowadays.
Examples are the Y-theodolite and Everest
theodolite.

Construction Details
A line diagram of a transit theodolite is
shown Figure.
1

It consists of alidade assembly at the top,

the horizontal circle assembly in the
middle and the levelling head assembly at
the bottom.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Important Terms in Theodolite

Transit
 It is also called plunging or reversing. This is the operation of revolving the
telescope through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus making it
point exactly in the opposite direction.
Face Right

When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the right of the observer, the position
is called face right and the observation made is called face right observation.

Face Left 1


When the vertical circle of a theodolite is on the left of the observer, the position is
called face left and the observation made is called face left observation.

By taking the mean of both face readings, the collimation error is eliminated.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Swinging the Telescope
 Revolving the telescope in the horizontal plane, about its vertical axis is called
swinging.
 A right swing means clockwise rotation of the telescope, whereas a left swing
means anticlockwise rotation of the telescope.
 By taking the mean of the right swing and the left swing observations, the effects of
error due to friction or backlash in the moving parts is eliminated.

Telescope Normal
 The telescope is said to be normal or direct when its vertical circle is to the left of
the observer and bubble is up.
1

Telescope Inverted
 The telescope is said to be inverted when its vertical circle is to the right of the
observer and the bubble is down.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Horizontal Axis
 It is also called the trunion axis or transverse axis (see previous figure).
 It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a vertical plane.
Vertical Axis
 It is the axis about which the telescope can be rotated in a horizontal plane.
Axis of Telescope
 It is the line joining the optical centre of the object glass to the centre of the
eyepiece.
Line of Sight
 It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of cross-hairs to the optical centre of
1

the objective and its continuation.

Axis of Level Tube
 It is a line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the level tube at its centre.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Lining In
 It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite on a given
straight line whose ends are intervisible.
Balancing In
 It is the process of establishing intermediate points with a theodolite on a given
straight line whose ends are not intervisible.

Reading a Theodolite
A theodolite has two (2) verniers A and B placed on the opposite sides of the upper
plate (i.e. They are placed at a difference of 180°).
For ordinary work usually the vernier A is read, whereas for precise work both the
1

verniers A and B are read and the mean of the two readings is used.

This practise minimizes the error due to eccentricity and imperfection in

subdivisions which might exist in the circular scale.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
The main scale and vernier of a typical theodolite as
graduated are shown in figure.

The main scale is graduated from 0° to 360° in

degrees and minutes.

Each degree part is tested and divided into three

equal parts. Hence, the minimum reading that can be
read from the main scale is 20‘.

The vernier scale is graduated into minutes and

seconds. Each minute division is divided into three
equal parts. Hence the last reading that can be read
from the vernier scale is 20“. 1

To read an observation, first determine the value of

the scale reading in degrees and minutes up to the
last scale division passed by the vernier zero (index).
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
For example, the reading in figure below:-

0 0 °
1

 Look at vernier index, then read the main scale, which is 100°.
 Look back at vernier scale and get the reading that has a parallel line  10’
40” 1

Main scale = 100° 00’

Vernier scale = 10’ 40”
 True reading = 100° 10’ 40”
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Temporary Adjustments
These are the adjustments which are done before making the observations at every
setup of the instrument.
They consist of:-
1. Setting up the theodolite
2. Levelling up the theodolite
3. Focussing the eyepiece
Before setting up the theodolite, it should be ensured that:-
1. The levelling screws are at the centre of their run. 1

2. The shifting head of the theodolite is at its centre so that equal movement is
possible in all the directions.
3. The wing nuts on the tripod legs are tight enough so that when raised, the tripod
legs do not fall under their own weight.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
1.1.Setting
SettingUp
Upthe
theTheodolite
Theodolite
 It consists of centering the theodolite over the station and its approximate levelling
by tripod legs.
Centering This involves setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark or
on the station peg. It is done by the following steps:
i. The plumb bob is suspended from a small hook attached to the vertical axis of the
theodolite.

ii. The instrument is placed over the station mark with the telescope at a convenient
height and with the tripod legs set well apart.

iii. Two legs of the tripod are set firmly into the ground and the third leg is moved
radially to bring the plumb bob exactly over the station mark. Then the third leg is
1

also pushed into the ground.

iv. If the instrument has a shifting head, the instrument is roughly centred over the
station mark and then by means of the shifting head, the plumb bob is brought
exactly over the station mark.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Approximate levelling

i. The implies levelling the instrument with the legs of the tripod, i.e. by bringing the
small circular bubble provided on the tribrach in the centre.

ii. To achieve this, two of the tripod legs are pushed firmly into the ground and the
third leg of the tripod is moved to the right or to the left, i.e. in the circumferential
direction until the bubble is centred.

iii. This leg is then pushed into the ground.

 Notes:-
a. When the leg is moved radially, the plumb bob is shifted in the direction of the leg
1

without affecting the plate levels appreciably.

b. When the leg is moved circumferentially, the instrument tilts and the plate levels are
affected but the plumb bob position is not affected appreciably.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
2.2.Levelling
Levellingup
up
 This means making the vertical axis truly vertical. This is done with the help of the
foot screws. The procedure is as follows:
i. The longer plate level is brought parallel to any two foot screws.
In the case of a three
screw levelling head, the
other plate level will
then be parallel to the
line joining the third foot
screw and the mid-point
of the line joining the
1
first two foot screws as
shown in figure.

ii. Bring the bubble of the longer plate level to the centre of its run by moving the two
foot screws, say A and B, uniformly either inwards or outwards (figure (a)). It may
be noted that the bubble always moves in the direction of the left thumb as the
surveyor turns the screw.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
iii. Move the third foot screw C so that the bubble in the other plate level is centred
(figure (b)).
iv. In case of four screw levelling head, each of the two plate levels will be parallel to
a pair of diagonally opposite levelling screws,see figure below.

Use two foot screws, say B

and D, to bring the bubble of
the plate level in the centre by
moving the screws uniformly
either inwards or outwards.
Use the other two screws A
and C and move them
uniformly either inwards or
1

outwards to centre the other

Levelling with four foot screws plate bubble.

v. Repeat the procedure until both the bubbles are in the centre of their run.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
vi. Rotate the instrument through a complete revolution. The bubbles should remain
central in all the positions.
vii.For greater accuracy, the instrument is levelled with reference to the altitude level
fixed either on the telescope or on the index arm.
3.3.Focussing
Focussing
 It consists of focussing the eyepiece and the objective.

Focussing the eyepiece

 This operation is done to make the cross-hairs appear clearly visible. The
following steps are involved:
i. The telescope is directed towards the sky or a sheet of white paper held in front
1

of the objective.

ii. The eyepiece is moved in or out until the cross-hairs appear clear and distinct.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Focussing the objective
 This operation is done to bring the image of the object in the plane of the cross-
hairs. The following steps are involved:
i. The telescope is directed towards the object.
ii. The focussing screw is turned until the image appears clear and sharp.

Permanent Adjustments
The permanent adjustments of a theodolite are so arranged in sequence that the next
adjustment does not disturb the results obtained from the previous adjustments.

The adjustment of the theodolite should be done in the order given below:-
1

1. Plate level test 4. Spire test

2. Cross-hair ring test 5. Bubble tube adjustment
3. Collimation in Azimuth test 6. Vertical arc test
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Tutorial 4.1
A line diagram of a transit theodolite is shown in Figure. Explain briefly what is
mean by:-
1. Alidade Assembly
2. Horizontal Circle Assembly
3. Levelling Head Assembly
4. Levelling Screws
5. Plumb Bob and Shifting Centre
6. Level Tubes 1

7. Circles
8. Clamp and Tangent Screws
9. Telescope
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
1.1.Plate
PlateLevel
LevelTest
Test
 Principally, this test is to make the plate bubbles central to their run when the
vertical axis of the theodolite is truly vertical.
Desired Relation
 The vertical axis of the instrument should be perpendicular to the axis of each plate
bubble tube.

 Thus, to ensure that the vertical axis of the instrument is truly vertical, it is
necessary to align the bubble axis parallel to the horizontal plate carrying the
bubble.

Test
 When in perfect adjustment, the plate bubbles once centred remain central for all
1

positions of the horizontal plate.

 If either or both the bubbles are not in the centre of their run, then an adjustment is
required.
 The instrument is levelled as described in Temporary Adjustment.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
 The telescope is rotated through 180°. If the bubble runs out of the centre, the
adjustment is not in order.

 If it so, count the number of graduations on the bubble, tube by which the bubble
has run out of its centre.
Adjustment
 Bring the bubble half way back to a central position by using the two foot screws.
This makes the vertical axis truly vertical.

 Bring the bubble to the centre of its run by means of capstan screw provided at one
of the ends of the bubble tube. This makes the axis of the bubble tube truly
horizontal.
2.2.Cross-Hair
Cross-HairRing
RingTest
Test
 Principally, this test is to make the vertical cross-hair lie in a plane perpendicular to
1

the horizontal axis.

Desired Relation
 The vertical cross-hair should lie in a plane perpendicular to the horizontal axis,
i.e. it is to be made truly vertical.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Test

 The instrument is carefully levelled. The telescope is directed towards a plumb bob
string at rest.

 The string is thus bisected and its image will lie on the vertical cross-hair. The
telescope is then rotated slightly, in a vertical plane, about its horizontal axis.

 If the correct relation exist, the image of the string will still be in coincidence with
the vertical hair. If not, the image will appear to move off the vertical cross-hair.

Adjustment
 To adjust the vertical cross-hair, loosen all the four capstan screws on the cross-
hair ring. 1

 Rotate the ring carefully so that the image of the string and the vertical hair
coincide.

 The screws are then tightened snugly.

 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
3.3.Collimation
Collimationin
inAzimuth
AzimuthTest
Test

Principally, this test is to make the line of sight perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

Desired Relation
 The line of sight should be perpendicular to the horizontal axis.

Test
 The instrument is set up and levelled at a point O in an open field so as to have an
unobstructed view for about 90m on either side of the instrument.
 The telescope, in normal position, is directed so as to bisect a fine mark say A at
about 60m from the instrument.
1

 The telescope is then inverted and a point B is set. If the instrument is in

adjustment, the points A, O and B will be in the same line.

 However, assume that the line of sight makes an angle 90° - e instead of 90° with
the horizontal axis, e being the error in adjustment as shown with dotted lines in
face left (F.L) and face right (F.R) positions in next figure.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

 In the face left position the instrument will establish a mark B1, whereas in face
right position, a mark B2 will be established. The resultan error in the instrument is
4e. 1

Adjustment
 Loosen the horizontal capstan screws on the cross-hair.

 The cross-hairs are moved azimuthally from a point B2 to a point mid-way between
B and B, i.e by ¼ of B B .
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
4.4.Spire
SpireTest
Test
 Principally, this test is known as the test for the adjustment of the standards.

Desired Relation
 The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis
Test

 The theodolite is set up and carefully levelled at about 50 m from a high building.

 A point, say A, on the building is bisected, preferably with a vertical angle greater
than 30°. The telescope is then lowered and a point B is set near the ground. The
face is changed and point A is sighted again (see next figure).
1

 The telescope is then depressed. If the instrument is in adjustment, the line of sight
will fall on the ground point vertically below the point A set prevously.

 If not, a second point B2 is set near the ground (see next figure). If e is the error in
adjustment, then B1B2 will be equal to 2e.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Adjustment

 The adjustment is made by raising or

lowering one end of the horizontal axis,
using the adjustment screw until the lineof
sight falls on the same ground point.

 It is a trial and error procedure. The

distance B1B2 is bisected and a fine mark
B, is made. The theodolite is moved
azimuthally until B is bisected.

 The telescope is raised back to A. It will be

in error by a horizontal distance B1B2 / 2.
1

 One end of the horizontal axis is moved with the adjusting screw till the line of
sight bisects A.

 Repeat the test and check the adjustment made.

 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
5.5.Vertical
VerticalCircle
CircleIndex
IndexTest
Test

This test is also known as the bubble tube adjustment test. Principally the test is to
make the telescope bubble central when the line of sight is horizontal.

Desired Relation
 The axis of the bubble tube attached to the telescope should be parallel to the line
of sight. This is done so that the vertical circle reads zero when the telescope is
horizontal.
Test
 The altitude bubble is brought to its centre by using the clip screws.

 Rotate the telescope and set vertical the telescope and set the vertical circle to read
1

zero.

 A staff is held vertical at about 60m from the instrument and the reading is taken.

 The face is changed and the staff is read again (see next figure). If there is an error,
the face reading will be different.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Adjustment
 The telescope is set to read the mean of the two staff readings.

 The vertical circle will not read zero now. It should be brought back to read zero
without disturbing the horizontal level of the telescope. 1

 The verniers are moved to read zero using the clip screws. In this process the
altitude bubble will moveoff the centre.
 The bubble is brought back to its centre by using the capstan screws.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
6.6.Vertical
VerticalArc
ArcTest
Test
 This test is also known as the vertical circle test. Principally this test is to make the
vertical circle indicate zero when the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical
axis.
Desired Relation
 When the line of sight is perpendicular to the vertical axis, the vertical circle
should be zero.
Test
 Centre the altitude bubble on telescope.

 The zero of the vernier of the vertical circle should coincide with zero on the main
scale of the vertical circle. 1

 If it fails to do so, then an adjustment is required.

Adjustment
 The capstan head screws are loosened and the vernier is moved till zero coincides
with that of the main scale.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Measurement of Horizontal Angle

Horizontal angles are measured on the horizontal circle of a theodolite by operating
the upper clamp, the lower clamp and the upper and lower tangent screws.

Often a beginner gets confused about the usage of the screws. It should be
remembered that with both the clamps set, the upper plate, the lower plate and the
telescope are immobile with respect to the levelling head and tripod.
To measure a horizontal angle, say ABC, the following procedure is followed:-

1. Set up the instrument over B and level it.

2. Loosen the upper clamp and turn the upper plate until the index (the arrow) of the
1

vernier A, nearly coincides with the horizontal circle. Clamp both the plates with
the upper clamp.
3. Turn the upper slow motion (tangent) screw so as to make the two zeros exactly
coincident.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
4. Loosen the lower clamp and direct the telescope to sight station A (see figure
below). The approximate bisection of the station is done by sighting from over the
telescope through a pin-and-hole arrangement provided over its top. Clamp the
plates by the lower clamp.

5. Bisect station A exactly by using the lower slow motion (tangent) screw. Exact
1

bisection is done by bringing the station mark exactly at the intersection of

horizontal and vertical hairs. The vertical circle clamp and slow motion screws are
used to achieve this.
6. Check the vernier A. it should be 0-0. Note the reading of the vernier B. it should
be 180°.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
7. Unclamp the upper plate, swing the telescope clockwise and bring the station C in
the field of view. Tighten the upper clamp and bisect C accurately using the upper
slow motion (tangent) screw.

8. Read both the verniers. The reading on vernier A directly gives the value of angle
ABC. Take the mean of the two values to get the angle ABC.

9. Change the face of the instrument and repeat the procedure. Thus, a second value
of the angle ABC is obtained. The average of the two values is the required
horizontal angle.
 Notes:-
a. While taking the observations, both the verniers are read. It eliminates the error due to
the axis of the vernier plate not coinciding with the axis of the main plates.
1

b. The vernier A is initially set to zero of the circle for convenience only. It may be set to any
other reading,e.g. 30°, 60°, 90°, etc. in each case the initial reading on the station is called
initial zero.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Tutorial 4.2
A horizontal angle is measured either by the method of repetition or by reiteration.
1. With the aid of diagram, explain each of them briefly.
2. Make the comparison of Method of Repetition and Reiteration.

Measurement of Vertical Angle

A vertical angle may be defined as the angle subtended by the line of sight and a
horizontal line at a station in the vertical plane.
If the point to be sighted is above the horizontal plane, the angle is called the angle of
1

elevation (+) and if the point is below it, the angle is called the angle of depression
(-).
To measure a vertical angle, say AOB (), the following procedure is followed:-
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
1. Suppose AOB () is the vertical angle to be
measured (see figure below). Set up the
instrument at O and level it.
2. Using the upper clamp and upper tangent
screw, set the zero of the vertical vernier to the
zero of the vertical circle.
3. Check the bubble of the altitude level which
should be central. If not, bring it to the centre
with the help of the clip screw.
4. Loosen the vertical circle clamp and rotate the telescope in a vertical plane and
bring station A in the field of view.

5. Bisect it accurately with the vertical clamping and tangent screws. Read both the
1

verniers C and D.
6. Change the face and repeat the procedure.

7. The average of the two observations gives the value of the required angle.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Booking Example:-
If the equipment is set up at station (2), the back sight at station (1) and station (3) is
the fore sight, the angle can be made in table below:-

1
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Booking and Make Bearing Angle See table below:-

1
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Checking
This figure shows a sketches of
outside work that had been made
exactly like previous table.

1
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Booking and Make Internal Angle See table below:-

1
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Checking

Total internal angle = (2n – 4) 90° where n is total angle.

 Total internal angle = (2 x 5 – 4) x 90° 1

= 540°
Close error = + 02‘ = +120“ ; Total correction = – 120“
Error divide to all stations  Correction for each station = – 120“ / 5 = – 24“
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite
Care should be
exercised in taking in & Clamps and screws
The vertical circle
out the theodolite from should especially be
should be cleaned 
the box. carefully operated.
however, excessive
rubbing should be Unnecessary pressure
avoided. Care of should not be used in
Theodolite tightening them.

The theodolite The tripod legs should be

should be protected well spread out to furnish
from moisture and The wing nuts on
the tripod must be stability to the instrument
dust as far as 1

& to permit placement of

possible. tight  to prevent
slippage & rotation the telescope at a
of the head. convenient height for the
observer.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Vertical Axis Error () Horizontal Axis Errors ()

Axis not vertical in an Horizontal axis not
observation, either from perpendicular to the vertical
imperfect plate level E axis.
adjustment or settlement of R
the instrument.
R
O
Lateral Collimation Error () R Vertical Collimation Error ()

Line of collimation not S Line of altitude bubble not

perpendicular to the parallel to the line of
1

horizontal axis. collimation when the verniers

of vertical circle read zero.
 Chapter 4 – Theodolite

Optical Theodolite Electronic Theodolite

These are also known as glass arc or These are becoming popular because of
micro-optic theodolites. two reasons:-
A system of i) Light and compact
prisms and
lenses is used ii) With a distomat attachment 
by means of become an automatic total survey
which an image system.
of graduations,
near the point at
which they are
being read, is 1

reflected into
the microscope.