MODULE 1: LESSON 1

THE STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS

PHILOSOPHY

THE TERM PHILOSOPHY IS TAKEN

FROM TWO GREEK WORDS, PHILOS AND
SOPHIA WHICH LITERALLY MEAN LOVE
OF WISDOM. IT SEEKS TO FIND OUT THE
TRUE MEANING OF LIFE AND THE
IMPORTANCE OF IT, THE DESIRE TO
UNDERSTAND THE EXISTENCE OF
EVERYTHING.
 PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS MAY BE
USED IN THE STUDY OF ANY SUBJECT OR
THE PURSUIT OF ANY VOCATION.
PHILOSOPHICAL TRAINING ENHANCES
ONE’S PROBLEM-SOLVING CAPACITIES,
ONE’S ABILITIES TO UNDERSTAND AND
EXPRESS IDEAS, AND ONE’S PERSUASIVE
POWERS.
 MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY

 PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY
 SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY
SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY

IT IS THE DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY

THAT IS PRIMARILY GOOD FOR
CONTEMPLATIVE UNDERSTANDING. IT
PROVIDES KNOWLEDGE OF A SUBJECT
OR AREA FOR THE SAKE OF
KNOWLEDGE.
PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY

IT IS THE DIVISION OF PHILOSOPHY

THAT IS GOOD FOR REAL LIFE
APPLICATION. IT PROVIDES
KNOWLEDGE TO BE USED OR APPLIED
IN CONCRETE ACTIONS OR
SITUATIONS.
 Branches of Speculative Philosophy

 EPISTEMOLOGY  THEODICY
 METAPHYSICS  RATIONAL
 COSMOLOGY PHILOSOPHY
 ANTHROPOLOGY  SOCIAL
PHILOSOPHY
 AESTHETICS
 POLITICAL
PHILOSOPHY
EPISTEMOLOGY

IT IS THE BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY

THAT DEALS WITH THE THEORY OF
KNOWLEDGE – ITS SOURCES, KINDS, AND
RELIABILITY. IT IS CONCERNED WITH
THE DEFINITION, SOURCES KINDS, AND
CRITERIA OF KNOWLEDGE POSSIBLE,
AND THE DEGREE TO WHICH EACH IS
CERTAIN.
METAPHYSICS

IT IS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY THAT

DEALS WITH THE NATURE OF
EXISTENCE. IT IS CUSTOMARILY
DIVIDED INTO ONTOLOGY AND
METAPHYSICS PROPER.
 ONTOLOGY DEALS WITH THE
QUESTION OF HOW MANY
FUNDAMENTALLY DISTINCT SORTS OF
ENTITIES COMPOSE THE UNIVERSE,
AND METAPHYSICS PROPER, WHICH
DESCRIBES THE MOST GENERAL TRAITS
OF REALITY.
COSMOLOGY

IT IS THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF THE

UNIVERSE ON THE LARGEST SCALES
OF SPACE AND TIME, PARTICULARLY
THE PROPOUNDING OF THEORIES
CONCERNING ITS ORIGIN, NATURE,
STRUCTURE, AND EVOLUTION.
ANTHROPOLOGY

IT IS THE STUDY OF MAN AND HIS

DESTINY. IT REFLECTS UPON MAN IN
ORDER TO UNDERSTAND HIM IN HIS
ENTIRETY, GRASPING THE
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF HIS
EXISTENCE IN THE WORLD AND HIS
BEHAVIOR.
AESTHETICS

IT IS A PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY
ABOUT BEAUTY IN ALL OF ITS FORMS.
IT ALSO DEALS WITH THE QUESTION OF
WHETHER SUCH QUALITIES ARE
OBJECTIVELY PRESENT IN THE THINGS
THEY APPEAR TO QUALIFY, OR EXIST
ONLY IN THE MIND OF THE INDIVIDUAL.
THEODICY

IT IS THE BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY

THAT DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF
SUPREME BEING, DEFINED AS BOTH
OMNIPOTENT AND GOOD IN THE
LIGHT OF EVIL IN THE WORLD.
RATIONAL PHILOSOPHY

IT IS PRIMARILY CONCERN WITH

THE PRINCIPLES OF LIVING THINGS,
ESPECIALLY THAT OF MAN, FOCUSING
MAINLY ON THE RELEVANCE OF THE
SOUL AND SELF-KNOWLEDGE WHICH
ARISES FROM COMMON SENSE AND
NATURAL REASON.
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY

IT IS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
THAT DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF THE
NATURE OF SOCIETY, RELATION
BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL, AND
SOCIAL INTERACTION THAT TAKES
PLACE IN THE GIVEN COMMUNITY.
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

IT IS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
THAT DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF THE
ULTIMATE FOUNDATION OF THE
STATE, THE NATURE OF LEGITIMATE
AUTHORITY, THE FORM OF
GOVERNMENT, AND THE PERFECT
FORM OF SOCIETY.
 Branches of Practical Philosophy

 Logic
 Ethics
LOGIC

IT IS THE FORMAL AND

SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF THE
PRINCIPLES OF VALID INFERENCE
AND CORRECT REASONING. IT IS
COMMONLY KNOWN AS THE ART
AND SCIENCE OF CORRECT
THINKING.
ETHICS

IT IS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
THAT DEALS WITH THE CONCEPTS
AND PRINCIPLES OR MORALITY.
 IT IS A NORMATIVE SCIENCE OF
THE CONDUCT OF HUMAN BEING
LIVING IN SOCIETIES; A SCIENCE
WHICH JUDGES THE CONDUCT TO BE
RIGHT OR WRONG, TO BE GOOD OR
BAD.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS
AND MORALITY

ETYMOLOGICALLY, THERE IS NO
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND
MORALITY, BECAUSE BOTH ETHICS
AND MORALITY COMES FORM THE
LATIN WORD MOS OR MORIS, WHICH
MEANS CUSTOM.
 HOWEVER, THERE IS A SLIGHT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ETHICS AND
MORALITY. ETHICS PROVIDES MAN
WITH THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE OF
THE MORALITY OF HUMAN ACT
WHILE MORALITY ACTUALIZES THE
THEORY. MORALITY IS NOTHING
ELSE BUT DOING OF ETHICS.
 DIVISION OF ETHICS

 GENERAL ETHICS
 SPECIAL ETHICS
GENERAL ETHICS

IT PRESENTS TRUTHS ABOUT

HUMAN ACTS, AND FROM THESE
TRUTHS DEDUCE THE GENERAL
PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY. GENERAL
ETHICS IS APPLIED TO INDIVIDUAL IN
RELATION TO HIMSELF, TO GOD AND
TO HIS FELLOW MAN.
SPECIAL ETHICS

THIS ONE IS APPLIED ETHICS. IT

APPLIES TO THE PRINCIPLES OF
GENERAL ETHICS IN DIFFERENT
DEPARTMENTS OF HUMAN ACTIVITY,
INDIVIDUAL AND SOCIAL. IT INCLUDES
MAN’S RELATION TO THE FAMILY, TO
THE STATE AND TO THE WORLD.
IMPORTANCE OF ETHICS

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

OF ETHICS FOLLOWS IMMEDIATELY
FROM THE MEANING OF ETHICS
ITSELF.
 ETHICS MEANS LIVING IN PROPER
WAY AND IT IS IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF A GOOD MORAL CHARACTER AND
VIRTUES THAT MAN FINDS
PERFECTION AND UNDERSTANDS HIS
PURPOSE OF EXISTENCE.
 THE GREEK TRIUMVIRATE, THE
CHRISTIAN TEACHINGS AND
MAJORITY OF ORIENTAL
PHILOSOPHERS AFFIRMED THAT THE
ULTIMATE PURPOSE OF HUMAN
EXISTENCES IS NOT ACQUISITION OF
MATERIAL POSSESSION, POWER AND
PRESTIGE BUT IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF MORAL QUALITIES THAT MAKE
MEN UNIQUE AND SUPREME FROM
ALL CREATION.
 CONFUCIUS LAID GREAT
EMPHASIS ON THE CULTIVATION OF
CHARACTER, THE PURITY OF HEART
AND CONDUCT. HE EXTORTED TO
THE PEOPLE A GOOD CHARACTER
FIRST, WHICH IS A PRICELESS JEWEL
AND WHICH IS THE BEST OF ALL
VIRTUES.
 Relationship of Ethics to Other Sciences

 ETHICS AND LOGIC  ETHICS AND

 ETHICS AND EDUCATION
PSYCHOLOGY  ETHICS AND LAW
 ETHICS AND  ETHICS AND ART
SOCIOLOGY  ETHICS AND
 ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE
ECONOMICS
ETHICS AND LOGIC

LOGIC IS THE SCIENCE AND ART OF

CORRECT REASONING. ETHICS IS THE
SCIENCE OF GOOD AND PROPER
LIVING. BUT GOOD LIVING
PRESUPPOSES CORRECT THINKING
AND REASONING. DOING FOLLOWS
THINKING.
ETHICS AND PSYCHOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY IS THE SCIENTIFIC

STUDY OF BEHAVIOR AND COGNITIVE
MENTAL PROCESS. BOTH INVOLVE
THE STUDY OF MAN, HUMAN NATURE,
AND HUMAN BEHAVIOR.
ETHICS AND SOCIOLOGY

SOCIOLOGY IS THE SCIENTIFIC

STUDY OF SOCIETY AND CULTURE
WHILE ETHICS IS CONCERNED WITH
THE MORAL ORDER, WHICH ALSO
INCLUDES SOCIAL ORDER.
 SOCIETY EXISTS BECAUSE OF THE
OBSERVANCE OF MORAL LAWS THAT
MAKES SOCIOLOGY DEPENDENT ON
ETHICS. BOTH ARE COMPLIMENTARY,
NORMS AND CULTURES OF THE
PEOPLE WHICH ARE THE BASIS OF
ETHICAL STANDARDS OF A
PARTICULAR SOCIETY.
ETHICS AND ECONOMICS

ECONOMICS IS THE PROPER

ALLOCATION AND EFFICIENT USE OF
AVAILABLE RESOURCES FOR THE
MAXIMUM SATISFACTION OF HUMAN
NEEDS.
 HIS MEANS OF LIVELIHOOD
THEREFORE MUST BE MORALLY
ACCEPTABLE. HE MUST OBSERVE
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS WITH HIS
FELLOW BEING.
ETHICS AND EDUCATION

EDUCATION LIBERATES MEN FROM

IGNORANCE NOT ONLY FROM
ETHICAL STANDARDS BUT ALSO FROM
LAWS THAT ARE IMPLEMENTED BY
THE SOCIETY. EDUCATION IS
CONCERNED WITH THE TOTAL HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT.
ETHICS AND LAW

LAWS IMPOSED BY THE SOCIETY

MUST BE FAIR, JUST, AND HUMANE. IT
MUST BE FOR THE WELFARE OF THE
MAJORITY OF THE PEOPLE AND NOT
OFFENSIVE TO MORALITY. THERE IS A
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WHAT IS
MORAL AND WHAT IS LEGAL.
 THEE LEGAL COVERS ONLY THE
EXTERNAL ACTS OF MAN; THE
MORAL GOVERNS EVEN THE
INTERNAL ACTS OF MAN, SUCH AS
THE VOLITIONAL AND INTENTIONAL
ACTIVITIES OF THE WILL AND MIND.
ETHICS AND ART

MAN’S ARTISTIC CREATION MUST

HAVE A NOBLE PURPOSE, WHICH
SHOULD NOT BE OFFENSIVE TO
MORALITY. A PIECE OF ART SHOULD
REFLECT BEAUTY AND MUST INSPIRE
EVERY PERSON WHO SEES IT.
ETHICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICAL SCIENCE IS THE STUDY

OF STATE AND GOVERNMENT.
POLITICS COVERS THE
ADMINISTRATION AND
MANAGEMENT OF OUT
GOVERNMENT.
 POLITICS IS ALSO CONCERNED
WITH THE MATERIAL NEEDS OF MAN
WHILE ETHICS IS PRIMARILY
CONCERN WITH THE SPIRITUAL
NEEDS OF MAN, THESE TWO ARE
INSEPARABLE.
 POLITICS IS NOT BAD AT ALL, IF IT
USED PROPERLY; THE POLITICIANS
MUST SET ASIDE THEIR PERSONAL
INTEREST AND RATHER PROMOTE
THE GENERAL WELFARE OF THE
CITIZENS.
 MODULE 1: LESSON 2

INTRODUCTION OF BASIC CONCEPTS

AND KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHICS
 LOOKING CLOSELY, HUMAN
ACTIONS OUGHT TO BE UNDERSTOOD
CLEARLY IN A VERY STRICT SENSE,
BECAUSE IT HAS SOMETHING TO DO
WITH HUMAN MOVEMENTS THAT ARE
RULED BY ONE’S FREEDOM.
 FREEDOM FIGURES CLOSELY INTO
ACTION AND INCLINATION. FREEDOM
HERE, MEANS NOT ONLY THE ABILITY
TO ACT FREE FROM OUTSIDE
INFLUENCES OR INDEPENDENCE
FROM THE IMPEDIMENTS TO ONE’S
WISHES.
 IT IS THE WILLFUL ACT AND
DECISION THAT GIVES FORM AND
SHAPE TO THE ACTIONS AND
INCLINATIONS OF THE HUMAN
PERSON.
 THE HUMN PERSON
HIMSELF/HERSELF IS SIGNIFICANT
ONLY IN CONSIDERING THE RESULT IN
MATTERS OF TO POIEIN OR GAWA.
 THE KEY ELEMENTS OF ETHICS

 CHARACTER
 MORAL CHARACTER
 MORAL COURAGE
 GAWA AND GAWI
 REASON
 FEELINGS
 FREEDOM
 GOOD ACTS AND EVIL ACTS
CHARACTER

IT IS AN EVALUATION OF AN
INDIVIDUAL'S
STABLE MORAL QUALITIES. THE
CONCEPT OF CHARACTER CAN
IMPLY A VARIETY OF ATTRIBUTES
INCLUDING THE EXISTENCE OR
LACK OF VIRTUES.
MORAL CHARACTER

IT PRIMARILY REFERS TO THE

ASSEMBLAGE OF QUALITIES THAT
DISTINGUISH ONE INDIVIDUAL FROM
ANOTHER.
 ALTHOUGH ON A CULTURAL LEVEL,
THE SET OF MORAL BEHAVIORS TO
WHICH A SOCIAL GROUP ADHERES CAN
BE SAID TO UNITE AND DEFINE IT
CULTURALLY AS DISTINCT FROM
OTHERS.
MORAL COURAGE

IT IS A RESULT OF MORALLY
DEVELOPED WILL. IT IS THE
CAPACITY TO INITIATE AND SUSTAIN
YOUR RESOLVE WHENEVER YOU ARE
CERTAIN OF DOING THE GOOD.
GAWA

THE TERM REFERS TO THE FREE

ACTION THAT IS ORIENTED TOWARDS
A PARTICULAR END. FOR EXAMPLE, A
WORKER USES HIS/HER FREE
IMAGINATION AND WILL TO BRING
ABOUT SERVICES AND PRODUCTS
THAT CONTRIBUTE TO THE WELL-
BEING OF SOCIETY.
 AS GOVERNED BY FREE DECISIONS
MAKING, THE CREATIVE WORKERS
EMBRACES ALL THE INFORMATION
HE/SHE CAN GATHER TO EFFECTIVELY
REALIZE HIS.HER PURPOSE.
GAWI

THE TERM REFERS TO THE FREE

KIND OF WORK. HOWEVER, INSTEAD
OF FOCUSING ON A PARTICULAR END
LIKE A PRODUCT OR FULFILLMENT.
 GAWI REFERS TO THE KIND OF ACTS
THAT HUMAN BEINGS ARE USED TO
ACCOMPLISHING. IT DOES NOT ONLY
REFER TO PARTICULAR ACTS OF A
PERSON. A PERSON’S HABITUAL ACTION
OR KAGAWIAN REVEALS TRUTH ABOUT
HIMSELF/HERSELF.
REASON

IT SETS THE COURSE FOR MAKING

ETHICAL AND IMPARTIAL DECIONS
ESPECIALLY IN MORAL SITUATIONS
ALTHOUGH IT IS NOT THE SOLE
DETERMINING FACTOR IN COMING
UP WITH SUCH DECISION.
FEELINGS

IT PROVIDES THE INDIVIDUAL

WITH AN INITIAL RECKONING OF A
SITUATION, BUT THEY SHOULD NOT
BE THE SOLE BASIS FOR ONE’S
MOTIVES AND ACTIONS.
FREEDOM

IT IS THE WILLFUL ACT AND

DECISION THAT GIVES FORM AND
SHAPE TO THE ACTIONS AND
INCLINATIONS OF THE INDIVIDUALS.
 FREEDOM IS ORIENTED TOWARDS
THE WHEREFORE, THE WHAT FOR,
AND THE WHOM FOR, OF THE
DOINGS OF THE INDIVIDUALS.
GOOD ACTS

A MORALLY GOOD ACT REQUIRES

THE GOODNESS OF THE OBJECT, OF
THE INTENTION OF THE AGENT, AND
OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES TOGETHER.
EVIL ACTS

IT IS AN ACT THAT CORRUPTS THE

ACTION EVEN IF THE OBJECT IS GOOD
IN ITSELF.
 APPROACHES TO NORMATIVE
ETHICS

 CONSEQUENTIALISM
 DEONTOLOGY
 VIRTUE ETHICS
CONSEQUENTIALISM

AT THE HEART OF
CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES IS THE
IDEA THAT THE MORAL ACTION IS
THE ONE THAT PRODUCES THE BEST
CONSEQUENCES.
DEONTOLOGY

ACCORDING TO DEONTOLOGICAL
THEORIES, MORALITY IS PRIMARILY A
FUNCTION OF DUTIES OR
OBLIGATIONS, REGARDLESS OF THE
CONSEQUENCES OF ACTING IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THOSE DUTIES.
VIRTUE ETHICS

IT GIVES PRIMACY OF IMPORTANCE

NOT TO RULES, BUT TO PARTICULAR
HABITS OF CHARACTER SUCH AS THE
VIRTUE OF COURAGE AND OTHER
TYPES OF VIRTUE THAT THE PERSON
IS PERSONALLY INCLINED TO
PERFORM.
MORAL STANDARDS

IT REFERS TO THE NORMS WHICH

WE HAVE ABOUT THE TYPES OF
ACTIONS WHICH WE BELIEVE TO BE
MORALLY ACCEPTABLE AND
MORALLY UNACCEPTABLE.
 SPECIFICALLY, IT INVOLVE SETS OF
RECOGNIZED AND PERMANENTLY
ACCEPTABLE CHARACTER OR NORMS
COMMONLY USED AS PRIMARY
MEASURE OF QUALITY, VALUE, AND
EXTENT.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS

IT REFER TO RULES THAT WE HAVE

ABOUT THE TYPES OF ACTIONS THAT
ARE UNRELATED
TO MORAL OR ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS.
 THESE REFERS TO THE PEOPLES
CUSTOMARY, AND HABITUAL WAYS OF
DOING THINGS. THESE CUSTOMARY
WAYS ARE ACCUMULATED AND
BECOME REPETITIVE PATTERNS OF
EXPECTED BEHAVIOR, WHICH TEND
TO BECOME PERMANENT
TRADITIONS.
DERIVATION OF MORAL STANDARDS
   
THE FOUNDATIONS OF EVOLVING
MORAL SYSTEMS REST ON A
COMPLEX CYBERNETIC PROCESS
THAT SUSTAINS AND PRESERVES THE
HUMAN SPECIES.
 THIS IS A DYNAMIC PROCESS THAT
DRIVES THE CREATION OF MORAL
AND ETHICAL STANDARDS, NAMELY:
EMOTION, AND RULES.
 EVERY HUMAN ACTION INSPIRES A
CORRESPONDING REACTION
WHETHER SUBTLE IN NATURE OR
VIOLENT. SOME PEOPLE ARE MORE
EMOTIONALLY REACTIVE THAN
OTHERS.
 EMOTIONS CAN GET OUT OF
CONTROL IF NOT REGULATED BY
LAWS, CUSTOMS, MORAL CODES,
PROFESSIONAL CODES AND EVEN THE
RULES OF ETIQUETTE.
 RULES ARE CONSIDERED AS AN
ESSENTIAL STABILIZING FORCE THAT
ENHANCE THE SURVIVABILITY OF
INDIVIDUALS, FAMILIES AND
NATIONS.
DILEMMA

IT IS A SITUATION WHERE A PERSON

IS FORCED TO CHOOSE BETWEEN TWO
OR MORE CONFLICTING OPTIONS,
NEITHER OF WHICH IS ACCEPTABLE.
AS WE CAN SEE, THE KEY HERE IS
THAT THE PERSON HAS CHOICES TO
MAKE THAT WILL ALL HAVE RESULTS
SHE DOES NOT WANT.
ETHICAL DILEMMA

IT IS A DECISION-MAKING PROBLEM
BETWEEN TWO POSSIBLE MORAL
IMPERATIVES, NEITHER OF WHICH IS
UNAMBIGUOUSLY ACCEPTABLE OR
PREFERABLE.
 IN ETHICAL DILEMMA, THE
COMPLEXITY ARISES OUT OF THE
SITUATIONAL CONFLICT IN WHICH
OBEYING WOULD RESULT IN
TRANSGRESSING ANOTHER.
 THERE ARE THREE IDENTIFIED
CONDITIONS THAT MUST BE PRESENT
FOR SITUATIONS TO BE CONSIDERED
MORAL DILEMMAS:
 FIRST, THE PERSON OR THE
AGENT OF A MORAL ACTION IS
OBLIGED TO MAKE A DECISION
ABOUT WHICH COURSE OF ACTION
IS BEST. HERE, THE MORAL AGENT
MUST CHOOSE THE BEST OPTION
AND ACT ACCORDINGLY.
 SECOND, THERE MUST BE
DIFFERENT COURSES OF ACTION TO
CHOOSE FROM. HENCE, AS ALREADY
POINTED OUT ABOVE, THERE MUST BE
TWO OR MORE CONFLICTING OPTIONS
TO CHOOSE FROM FOR MORAL
DILEMMAS TO OCCUR.
 THIRD, NO MATTER WHAT COURSE
OF ACTION IS TAKEN, SOME MORAL
PRINCIPLES ARE ALWAYS
COMPROMISED.
 TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMA

 EPISTEMIC DILEMMAS: SELF-

IMPOSED
AND WORLD-IMPOSED
DILEMMAS
 OBLIGATION DILEMMAS AND
PROHIBITION DILEMMAS
 SINGLE AGENT AND MULTI-PERSON
DILEMMAS
EPISTEMIC DILEMMA

IT INVOLVE SITUATIONS WHEREIN

TWO OR MORE MORAL
REQUIREMENTS CONFLICTED WITH
EACH OTHER AND THAT THE MORAL
AGENT HARDLY KNOWS WHICH OF
THE CONFLICTING MORAL
REQUIREMENTS TAKES PRECEDENCE
OVER THE OTHER.
 IN OTHER WORDS, UNDER THE
EPISTEMIC DILEMMA, THE MORAL
AGENT IN THIS SITUATION DOES NOT
KNOW WHICH OPTION IS MORALLY
RIGHT OR WRONG.
SELF-IMPOSED DILEMMA

THIS IS CAUSED BY THE MORAL

AGENT’S WRONG DOINGS.
OBLIGATION DILEMMA

THIS PERTAINS TO A PARTICULAR

SITUATIONS IN WHICH THERE ARE
MORE THAN ONE FEASIBLE ACTIONS
IS OBLIGATORY,
SINGLE AGENT DILEMMA

THE MORAL AGENT IS COMPELLED

TO ACT ON TWO OR MORE EQUALLY
THE SAME MORAL OPTIONS BUT
HE/SHE CANNOT CHOOSE BOTH.
 THE SOURCES OF MORALITY

 THE OBJECT
 THE INTENTION OF THE AGENT
 THE CIRCUMSTANCES
THE OBJECT

IT IS THE AIM OR GOAL OF A CERTAIN

ACTION.ACQUIRED. TO MAKE AN ACT
MORALLY GOOD, IT’S OBJECT OR AIM
MUST CONFORM TO THE LAW OF GOD
OR THE CONSCIENCE OF THE DOER OF
THE ACTION MUST ATTEST IT.
THE INTENTION OF THE AGENT

IT REFERS TO THE MEANS OF

ATTAINING THE OBJECT.
THE CIRCUMSTANCES

THESE PERTAINS TO THE TYPES OF

ENVIRONMENT, SITUATION, OR
CONDITION PREVAILING WHEN THE
ACTION IS DONE.
 MODULE 2: LESSON 1

CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

 THE BEGINNING OF HUMAN
CIVILIZATION IS A PROPER
REFERENCE POINT IN TREATING THE
INTERESTING SUBJECT OF CULTURE.
 A HUMAN BEINGS ADAPTATION TO
THEIR SOCIETY, CONFORMITY TO THE
CULTURE OF THEIR TIME, AND THEIR
EDUCATION HAVE WORK ALONGSIDE
EACH OTHER PUTTING THEIR PRESENT
STATUS.
CULTURE

IT IS DERIVED FROM THE LATIN WORD

CULTURA OR CULTUS WHICH MEANS
CARE OR CULTIVATION. CULTURE IS
ANALOGOUS TO CARING FOR AN INFANT.
BECAUSE AN INFANT HAS PROLONGED
DEPENDENCY, HE/SHE HAS TO BE TAKEN
CARE BY PEOPLE AROUND HIM/HER.
 CULTURE HAS BEEN DEFINED AS
ALL MODES OF THOUGHT, BEHAVIOR,
AND PRODUCTION THAT ARE HANDED
DOWN FROM ONE GENERATION TO
THE NEXT BY MEANS OF
COMMUNICATIVE INTERACTION
RATHER THAN BY GENETIC
TRANSMISSION.
 CULTURE AS CULTIVATION IMPLIES
THAT EVERY HUMAN BEING IS A
POTENTIAL MEMBER OF HI/HER OWN
SOCIAL GROUP. HE/SHE IS ENDOWED
WITH CERTAIN INNATELY USEFUL
QUALITIES.
 HOWEVER, HE/SHE CANNOT
DEVELOP THESE INBORN TALENTS
WITHOUT THE HELP OF OTHER
PEOPLE.
 IT IS AN INDELIBLE MANIFESTATION
OF HUMAN EXISTENCE THAT SHOWS
HOW FAR A HUMAN BEING HAS GONE
IN THE COURSE OF TIME AND HOW
MUCH HE/SHE HAS LEARNED.
 THE GROWTH OF CULTURE
ANYWHERE AT ANY GIVEN TIME IS A
RESULT OF AN INDIVIDUAL’S
REACTION TO THE SEVERAL STIMULI
THAT MOTIVATES HIS/HER WAY OF
THINKING AND CHALLENGE HIS/HER
MODE OF LIVING. WITHOUT HIM/HER
CULTURE WILL BE AT A STANDSTILL.
ORIGIN OF CULTURE

ANTHROPOLOGISTS BELIEVE THAT

CULTURE IS A PRODUCT OF HUMAN
EVOLUTION. HUMANS DEVISED A
COMMON WAY OF CLASSIFYING
EXPERIENCES AND TRANSMITTING
THEM SYMBOLICALLY.
 SINCE THESE EXPERIENCES WERE
LEARNED AND TRANSMITTED, THE
DEVELOPED DISTINCTLY,
INDEPENDENT FROM BIOLOGICAL
EVOLUTIONS. HENCE, A PERSON MAY
TRANSMIT BELIEFS, VALUES, NORMS
OR WAY OF LIFE TO ANOTHER PERSON
EVEN IF THEY ARE NOT RELATED BY
BLOOD.
 THIS VIEW OF CULTURE ARGUES
THAT PEOPLE FROM DIFFERENT
PLACES DEVELOP DISTINCT
CULTURES. HOWEVER, ELEMENTS OF
A CULTURE CAN BE TRANSMITTED
FROM ONE SOCIETY TO ANOTHER.
 BEING DYNAMIC, CULTURE CAN BE
TAUGHT AND LEARNED, MAKING IT
POTENTIALLY RAPID FORM OF
ADAPTATION TO CHANGES IN THE
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT.
 ELEMENTS OF CULTURE 

 MATERIAL CULTURE
 NON-MATERIAL CULTURE
Material Culture

It includes the physical objects a society

produces. These are tools, pieces of
furniture, clothing, automobiles, and
computer systems, to name a few.
 Awareness of these kinds of objects
created and how people use them brings
about greater understanding of culture of
society.
NON-MATERIAL CULTURE

IT CONSIST OF ELEMENTS TERMED

NORMS, VALUES, BELIEF, AND
LANGUAGE SHARED BY THE
MEMBERS OF A SOCIETY. NON-
MATERIAL CULTURE IS CONSIDERED
AS THE CARRIERS OF CULTURE.
 ELEMENTS OF NON-MATERIAL
CULTURE 

 LANGUAGE
 BELIEFS
 VALUES
 NORMS
LANGUAGE

THE MOST DEFINING

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HUMAN
BEING IS THE ABILITY TO DEVELOP
AND USE HIGHLY COMPLEX SYSTEMS
OF SYMBOLS LIKE LANGUAGE.
 A SYMBOL, AS SOCIOLOGIST SAYS,
IS THE VERY FOUNDATION OF
CULTURE. THE ESSENCE OF
CULTURE IS THE SHARING OF
MEANINGS AMONG MEMBERS OF THE
SOCIETY.
 UNLESS ONE SHARES THE
LANGUAGE OF CULTURE, ONE
CANNOT PARTICIPATE IN IT.
LANGUAGES INFLUENCES PEOPLE’S
WAY OF PERCEIVING, BEHAVING AND
FEELING, THUS, TENDS TO DEFINE
AND SHAPE THE WORLD AROUND
THEM.
 IT IS THROUGH LANGUAGE THAT
IDEAS, VALUES, BELIEFS AND
KNOWLEDGE ARE TRANSMITTED,
EXPRESSED AND SHARED.
BELIEF

THESE ARE IDEAS THAT PEOPLE

HOLD ABOUT ANY PART OF THE TOTAL
REALITY SURROUNDING THEM. IT
SHOWS HOW PEOPLE SEE REALITY.
 THE SUBJECT OF HUMAN BELIEFS
MAY BE INFINITE AND MAY INCLUDE
IDEAS CONCERNING THE INDIVIDUAL,
OTHER PEOPLE, AND ANY ASPECTS OF
THE BIOLOGICAL, PHYSICAL, SOCIAL,
AND SUPERNATURAL WORLD, BE IT
PRIMITIVE OR SCIENTIFIC.
VALUES

THESE ARE THE SHARED IDEAS

ABOUT DESIRABLE GOALS. THESE
ARE PERSON’S IDEAS ABOUT WORTH
AND DESIRABILITY OR AN ABSTRACT
OF WHAT IS IMPORTANT AND
WORTHWHILE.
 VALUES MAKES UP HUMAN
JUDGMENTS OF WHAT IS MORAL AND
IMMORAL, GOOD AND BAD, RIGHT OR
WRONG, BEAUTIFUL AND UGLY, AND
SO ON.
NORMS

THESE ARE SHARED RULES OF

CONDUCT THAT SPECIFY HOW
PEOPLE SHOULD OUGHT TO THINK
AND ACT. NORMS IS SIMPLY DEFINED
AS SPECIFIC RULES OF BEHAVIOR.
 TYPES OF NORMS 

 MORES
 FOLKWAYS
 LAWS
MORES

THESE ARE NORMS ASSOCIATED

WITH STRONG IDEAS OF RIGHT AND
WRONG. MORES ARE STANDARD OF
CONDUCT THAT ARE HIGHLY
RESPECTED AND VALUED BY THE
GROUP AND THEIR FULFILLMENT IS
FELT TO BE NECESSARY AND VITAL
TO GROUP WELFARE.
 THEY ARE CONSIDERED ESSENTIAL TO
GROUP’S EXISTENCE AND ACCORDINGLY,
THE GROUP DEMANDS THAT THEY BE
FOLLOWED WITHOUT QUESTION. THEY
REPRESENT OBLIGATORY BEHAVIOR
BECAUSE THEIR INFRACTIONS RESULT IN
PUNISHMENTS, FORMAL OR INFORMAL.
FOLKWAYS

THESE ARE NORMS THAT SIMPLY THE

CUSTOMARY, NORMAL AND HABITUAL
WAYS A GROUP DOES THINGS. THESE
CUSTOMARY WAYS ARE ACCUMULATED
AND BECOME REPETITIVE PATTERNS OF
BEHAVIOR, WHICH TENDS TO BECOME
PERMANENT TRADITIONS.
LAWS

THESE ARE OFTEN REFERRED TO

AS FORMAL NORMS. THEY ARE RULES
THAT ARE ENFORCED AND
SANCTIONED BY THE AUTHORITY OF
THE GOVERNMENT.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

 CULTURE IS LEARNED
 CULTURE IS SHARED
 CULTURE IS CUMULATIVE
 CULTURE IS DYNAMIC
 CULTURE IS DIVERSE
 FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE

THE IMPORTANCE OF CULTURE CANNOT

BE OVEREMPHASIZED. ALTHOUGH
HUMAN BEINGS POSSESS INSTINCT, THEY
GENERALLY RELY ON THEIR CULTURE IN
ORDER TO SURVIVE. NEXT TO THIS, ARE
SOME FUNCTIONS OF CULTURE.
 CULTURE HELPS PEOPLE ADAPT TO
THE DEMAND OF THE SURROUNDING
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT.

 CULTURE COMPENSATES FOR MANY

HUMAN PHYSICAL LIMITATIONS.
 CULTURE PROVIDES WAYS AND MEANS TO
REGULATE HUMAN COLLECTIVE
EXISTENCE.

 CULTURE PRESCRIBES BEHAVIORAL

PATTER INSIDES WAYS AND MEANS TO
REGULATE HUMAN.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM

THE CONCEPT REFERS TO THE

NOTION THAT EACH CULTURE
SHOULD BE EVALUATED ACCORDING
TO ITS OWN MERITS AND STANDARDS
RATHER THAN FROM THE
STANDPOINT OR BASES OF A
DIFFERENT CULTURE.
 IN OTHER WORDS, NORMS, VALUES,
AND BELIEFS SHOULD BE JUDGED
ONLY FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE
CULTURE WHERE THEY BELONG.
 THE GOAL OF CULTURAL
RELATIVISM IS TO PROMOTE
UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURAL
PRACTICES THAT ARE NOT TYPICALLY
PART OF ONE’S OWN CULTURE.
 USING THE PERSPECTIVE OF
CULTURAL RELATIVISM, IT LEADS TO
THE VIEW THAT NO PARTICULAR
CULTURE IS SUPERIOR THAN
ANOTHER CULTURE WHEN COMPARED
TO SYSTEMS OF MORALITY, LAW,
POLITICS, AND SO ON.
 IT IS A CONCEPT THAT CULTURAL
NORMS AND VALUES DERIVE THEIR
MEANING WITHIN A SPECIFIC SOCIAL
CONTEXT.
 MODES OF ACQUIRING CULTURE

 IMITATION
 INDOCTRINATION
 CONDITIONING
 ACCULTURATION
 AMALGAMATION
IMITATION

IT IS HUMAN ACTION BY WHICH

ONE TENDS TO DUPLICATE MORE OR
LESS EXACTLY THE BEHAVIOR OF
OTHERS.
INDOCTRINATION

THIS TAKES THE FORM OF FORMAL

TEACHING OR TRAINING WHICH MAY
HAPPEN ANYWHERE. THE FORMAL
TEACHING TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE
CULTURAL COMPONENTS OF SOCIETY
WHERE THE LEARNING INDIVIDUALS LIVES.
CONDITIONING

THROUGH NORMS PREVAILING IN

ONE’S SOCIAL AND CULTURAL MILIEU
AND THROUGH THE PROCESS OF
CONDITIONING, THE INDIVIDUAL
ACQUIRES CERTAIN PATTERNS OF
BELIEFS, VALUES, AND BEHAVIORS.
ACCULTURATION

IT IS A PROCESS BY WHICH
SOCIETIES WITH DIFFERENT
CULTURES ARE MODIFIED THROUGH
FAIRLY CLOSE AND LONG CONTINUED
CONTACT.
AMALGAMATION

IT IS THE INTERMARRIAGE OF
PERSONS COMING FROM DIFFERENT
CULTURAL GROUPS RESULTING IN
SOME KIND OF BIOLOGICAL FUSION.
 MODULE 2: LESSON 2

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT

DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT

ETHICS IS A MATTER OF LIVING

WELL THROUGH THE HABITUAL
PRACTICE OF VIRTUE WHICH
ESSENTIALLY TRANSLATES INTO
HAVING A VIRTUOUS OR EXCELLENT
CHARACTER.
 A VIRTUOUS CHARACTER IS THE
RESULT OF PROPER COMBINATION OF
PRACTICAL WISDOM (PHRONESIS),
AND HABITUATION IN THE PURSUIT
OF THE MEAN (MESOTES).
 BEING ETHICAL IS ALL ABOUT BEING
EXCELLENT IN HUMAN BEING, WHICH IS
BEING EXCELLENT IN FULFILLING
ONE’S ESSENCE AS A RATIONAL BEING
THAT HAS CULTIVATED AN EXCELLENT
CHARACTER AND CAPABLE OF MAKING
THE MOST PRUDENT DECISIONS IN ALL
CIRCUMSTANCES.
 THROUGH THE CONSTANT
INTERACTION OF THOUGHT AND
ACTION AS PROMPTED BY VARIOUS
SITUATIONS THAT CALLS FOR ONE’S
DECISION, A PERSON COMES TO
KNOW HIMSELF/HERSELF AS A
CERTAIN TYPE OF CHARACTER OR
PERSONALITY.
 BEING A CERTAIN WAY OR HAVING
A PARTICULAR PERSONALITY OR
CHARACTER IMPLIES A CERTAIN
UNDERSTANDING OF THE GOOD.
 PERSONALITY OR CHARACTER IS
AN APPROACH OR A WAY OF
RECKONING THE DIFFERENT
SITUATIONS THAT ONE FACES IN
HIS/HER LIFE - A WAY OF NAVIGATING
ONE’S WAY TOWARDS HIS/HER
FLOURISHING AS A HUMAN PERSONS.
 CHARACTER IS NOT MERELY A
THEORETICAL CONSTRUCT BUT A
PRODUCT OF ACTION IN THE WORLD –
A CONSTANT DOING OR WAY OF BEING
THAT IS MADE APPARENT BY THE
POSSESSION AND ACTUALIZATION OF
PARTICULAR VIRTUES OR VICES.
MORAL CHARACTER

IT IS AN EVALUATION OF AN
INDIVIDUAL'S
STABLE MORAL QUALITIES. THE
CONCEPT OF CHARACTER CAN
IMPLY A VARIETY OF ATTRIBUTES.
 A MORAL CHARACTER INCLUDES
THE EXISTENCE OR LACK OF
VIRTUES SUCH AS EMPATHY,
COURAGE, FORTITUDE, HONESTY,
AND LOYALTY, OR OF GOOD
BEHAVIORS OR HABITS.
 MORAL CHARACTER PRIMARILY
REFERS TO THE ASSEMBLAGE OF
QUALITIES THAT DISTINGUISH ONE
INDIVIDUAL FROM ANOTHER.
 ALTHOUGH ON A CULTURAL
LEVEL, THE SET OF MORAL
BEHAVIORS TO WHICH A SOCIAL
GROUP ADHERES CAN BE SAID TO
UNITE AND DEFINE IT CULTURALLY
AS DISTINCT FROM OTHERS.
 PSYCHOLOGIST LAWRENCE
PERVIN DEFINES MORAL
CHARACTER AS A DISPOSITION TO
EXPRESS BEHAVIOR IN CONSISTENT
PATTERNS OF FUNCTIONS ACROSS A
RANGE OF SITUATIONS.
 NORMATIVE ETHICS INVOLVE
MORAL STANDARDS THAT EXHIBIT
RIGHT AND WRONG CONDUCT. IT IS
A TEST OF PROPER BEHAVIOR AND
DETERMINING WHAT IS RIGHT AND
WRONG.
 PLATO BELIEVED THAT
THE SOUL IS DIVIDED INTO THREE
PARTS OF DESIRE, NAMELY:

 RATIONAL
 APPETITIVE
 SPIRITED
 IN ORDER TO HAVE MORAL
CHARACTER, WE MUST UNDERSTAND
WHAT CONTRIBUTES TO OUR
OVERALL GOOD AND HAVE OUR
SPIRITED AND APPETITIVE DESIRES
EDUCATED PROPERLY, SO THAT THEY
CAN AGREE WITH THE GUIDANCE
PROVIDED BY THE RATIONAL PART OF
THE SOUL.
 ARISTOTLE TELLS US THAT THERE
ARE GOOD PEOPLE IN THE WORLD.
THESE ARE THOSE WHO
EXHIBIT EXCELLENCES –
EXCELLENCES OF THOUGHT AND
EXCELLENCES OF CHARACTER.
 EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER,
THEN, IS A STATE CONCERNED WITH
CHOICE, LYING IN A MEAN RELATIVE
TO US, THIS BEING DETERMINED BY
REASON AND IN THE WAY IN WHICH
THE MAN OF PRACTICAL
WISDOM WOULD DETERMINE IT.
 WE HAVE BEEN INFORMED THAT
ETHICS IS A BRANCH OF PHILOSOPHY
CONCERNED ABOUT ACTIONS, THE
ACTION EITHER HUMAN ACT OR ACT
OF MAN. ETHICS AND VALUES HAVE A
COMMON ROLE; THEY EVEN
INTERPLAY WITH EACH OTHER.
 ETHICS WITHOUT VALUES IS
HOLLOW AND SHALLOW AND
THEREFORE WEAK. WHILE VALUES
WITHOUT ETHICS IS PARALYTICS.
VALUES

THESE ARE BELIEFS OR IDEALS

SHARED BY THE MEMBER OF A
CULTURE ABOUT WHAT IS GOOD OR
DESIRABLE AND WHAT IS NOT. IT
STRONGLY INFLUENCE THE BEHAVIOR
OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND SERVE AS
BOARD IN ALL SITUATION.
 THROUGH HEREDITY OR THROUGH
THE ENVIRONMENT, AN INDIVIDUAL
ACQUIRES VALUES. THE INFLUENCE OF
THE FAMILY, COMMUNITY, SOCIETY,
NATION, AND OTHER INDIVIDUALS
MAKES THE PERSON UNIQUE AS HE/SHE
DEVELOPS A SET OF VALUES. THESE
VALUES DETERMINE THE PRIORITIES
AND LIFESTYLE OF THE PERSON.
ROOT OF FILIPINO VALUES

THERE ARE THREE KNOWN ORIGIN

OF THE FILIPINO VALUES. THESE ARE
LIFESTYLES, HUMAN NATURE, AND
CULTURAL INCLINATION.
THE PATTERNS OF FILIPINO VALUES

 EXOGENOUS PATTERN
 INDIGENOUS PATTERN
EXOGENOUS PATTERN

IT IS ALSO IDENTIFIED AS LEGAL OR

FORMAL. THE WORD ITSELF WOULD
HELP US DEDUCE ITS ROOT TO THE
TIME WHEN FILIPINOS BEGAN TO
FORM A LINK WITH CULTURES.
INDIGENOUS PATTERN

IT IS CONSIDERED TRADITIONAL OR
NON-FORMAL PATTERN OF FILIPINO
VALUES. INDIGENOUS VALUES ARE
ACQUIRED IN THE SUBCONSCIOUS
MIND.
 FILIPINO VALUES

 BAYANIHAN
 FAMILY CLOSENESS
 HOSPITALITY
 COMPASSION
 REGIONALISM
 FRIENDLINESS
 POLITENESS
BAYANIHAN

THE FILIPINO COMMUNITY SPIRIT

OF COOPERATION IN WHICH A GROUP
OF INDIVIDUALS EXTENDS A HELPING
HAND WITHOUT EXPECTING ANY
REMUNERATION.
FAMILY CLOSENESS

THE FILIPINO TRAIT OF

PRIORITIZING THE FAMILY ABOVE
OTHER THINGS AND MAINTAINING
THE CLOSE CONNECTIONS AND
COOPERATIONS AMONG ITS
MEMBERS.
HOSPITALITY

THE FILIPINO TRAIT OF BEING

RECEPTIVE AND GENEROUS TO
GUESTS AND TO ANYBODY THAT
ENTERS INTO THEIR HOMES.
COMPASSION

THE FILIPINO TRAIT OF BEING KIND

AND EMPHATIC TO OTHERS EVEN IF
THE PERSON IS A NOT KNOWN TO
THEM OR A STRANGER.
REGIONALISM

THE FILIPINO TRAIT OF GIVING HIS

PROVINCE MATES PREFERENTIAL
TREATMENT AS WELL AS PRIORITY
OVER NATIVES OF OTHER PROVINCES.
FRIENDLINESS

THE FILIPINO QUALITY OF BEING

FRIENDLY AND CAN EASILY GET
TOGETHER WITH OTHERS IN A
SINCERE, LOYAL, AND KIND WAYS.
POLITENESS

THE FILIPINO QUALITY OF BEING

COURTEOUS TO ANYBODY, MOST
ESPECIALLY TO THE ELDARS, AND IT
IS USUALLY ASSOCIATED WITH THE
USED OF PO AND OPO.
FILIPINO VALUES AND NON-FILIPINO
CULTURE

WHILE IT IS TRUE THAT FILIPINOS

HAVE THEIR OWN SENSE OF VALUES
AND VALUING SYSTEM, IT IS ALSO AN
ACCEPTED FACT THAT THESE
DISTINCT VALUES CAME FROM THE
UNIVERSAL HUMAN NEEDS AND
WANTS.
 FOR INSTANCE EVERYONE IN THE
WORLD HAS A WANT TO OWN A CAR.
HOWEVER, HOW SERIOUS THE
FILIPINOS ARE ON THIS WANT MAY BE
DIFFERENT FROM THAT OF THE
AMERICANS.
 BIPOLAR FILIPINO VALUES

 HIYA OR SHAME
 NINGAS COGON OR
PROCRASTINATION
 BAHALA NA OR RESIGNATION
 MAÑANA HABIT
 UTANG NA LOOB OR
INDEBTEDNESS
HIYA OR SHAME

IT GIVES THE FILIPINOS A PICTURE

OF REFINEMENT, CULTURE AND
EDUCATION. IT AVOIDS HARSHNESS OR
CRUDENESS. THIS VALUE LIMITS THE
FILIPINOS TO DESIRE SO MUCH AND IT
GIVES THEM PEACE OF MIND.
NINGAS COGON

ITS POSITIVE ASPECTS RELIES ON THE

FACT THAT A PERSON WITH SUCH A
VALUE IS DEFINITELY SIMPLE. IT HAS A
NEGATIVE EFFECT BECAUSE A MAN WITH
THAT VALUE REFUSES TO TAKE
RESPONSIBILITY, AND A MAN WHO DOES
NOT TAKE RESPONSIBILITIES SEEMS TO
BE FAR FROM IMPROVEMENTS.
BAHALA NA OR RESIGNATION

IT HAS A POSITIVE EFFECT

BECAUSE IT IS A DEMONSTRATION OF
DEPENDENCE TO GOD. BAHALA NA IS
A EXPRESSION OF HUMILITY; IT IS
THE OPPOSITE OF ARROGANCE.
HOWEVER, IT ALSO HAVE A NEGATIVE
EFFECT BECAUSE IT LEGITIMIZES
LAZINESS.
MAÑANA HABIT

BEING A POSITIVE VALUES, IT ALLOW

THINGS TO MOVE ON THEIR PATTERN.
THEY ASSURE PEACE OF MIND IN THE
PERSON. THEY ARE LIKE ALLOWING
WOUND TO HEAL ON ITS OWN. HOWEVER,
THEY ALSO HAVE A NEGATIVE PART. IT
KEEPS PROBLEMS TO A HEAP UNTIL
SOLVING THEM BECOMES IMPOSSIBLE.
Utang na Loob or Indebtedness

It is a recognition of a favor. It is a way of

paying back something or a way of
repayment. It is also negative; the success of
one is like a debt to someone. This is one
weakness of the Filipinos that many times it
results to prejudices during elections.
MODULE 2: LESSON 3

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
 THE NOTIONS OF MORALITY
DEVELOPMENT HAVE BEEN
DEVELOPED OVER CENTURIES, THE
EARLIEST CAME FROM PHILOSOPHERS
LIKE CONFUCIUS, ARISTOTLE,
AND ROUSSEAU, WHO ALL TOOK A
MORE HUMANIST PERSPECTIVE AND
FOCUSED ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE CONSCIENCE AND SENSE OF
VIRTUE.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT

IT FOCUSES ON THE EMERGENCE,

CHANGE, AND UNDERSTANDING
OF MORALITY FROM INFANCY
THROUGH ADULTHOOD.
 MORALITY DEVELOPS ACROSS A
LIFETIME AND IS INFLUENCED BY AN
INDIVIDUAL'S EXPERIENCES AND THEIR
BEHAVIOR WHEN FACED WITH MORAL
ISSUES THROUGH DIFFERENT PERIODS‘
OF PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT.
 MORALITY IN ITSELF IS OFTEN A
SYNONYM FOR RIGHTNESS OR
GOODNESS. IT REFERS TO A CERTAIN
CODE OF CONDUCT THAT IS DERIVED
FROM ONE'S CULTURE, RELIGION OR
PERSONAL PHILOSOPHY THAT GUIDES
ONE'S ACTIONS, BEHAVIORS AND
THOUGHTS.
 IN THE MODERN DAY, EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH HAS EXPLORED MORALITY
THROUGH A MORAL PSYCHOLOGY
LENS BY THEORISTS LIKE SIGMUND
FREUD AND ITS RELATION TO
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT BY
THEORISTS LIKE JEAN
PIAGET, LAWRENCE KOHLBERG, AND
B. F. SKINNER.
 LEVELS OF MORAL REASONING

 PRE-CONVENTIONAL
 CONVENTIONAL
 POST-CONVENTIONAL
PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

IT IS WHERE A CHILD’S SENSE OF

MORALITY IS EXTERNALLY
CONTROLLED. CHILDREN ACCEPT
AND BELIEVE THE RULES OF
AUTHORITY FIGURES, SUCH AS
PARENTS AND TEACHERS.  
STAGES OF PRE-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
OF MORAL REASONING

STAGE 1

OBEDIENCE/PUNISHMENT
ORIENTATION

STAGE 2

INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION
STAGE 1 OBEDIENCE/PUNISHMENT
ORIENTATION

IT FOCUSES ON THE CHILD’S DESIRE

TO OBEY RULES AND AVOID BEING
PUNISHED. FOR EXAMPLE, AN ACTION IS
PERCEIVED AS MORALLY WRONG
BECAUSE THE PERPETRATOR IS
PUNISHED; THE WORSE THE
PUNISHMENT FOR THE ACT IS, THE MORE
BAD THE ACT IS PERCEIVED TO BE.
STAGE 2: INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION

IT EXPRESSES THE WHAT’S IN IT FOR

ME? POSITION, IN WHICH RIGHT
BEHAVIOR IS DEFINED BY WHATEVER THE
INDIVIDUAL BELIEVES TO BE IN THEIR
BEST INTEREST.
 STAGE TWO REASONING SHOWS A
LIMITED INTEREST IN THE NEEDS OF
OTHERS, ONLY TO THE POINT WHERE IT
MIGHT FURTHER THE INDIVIDUAL’S
OWN INTERESTS.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

IT IS WHERE A CHILD’S SENSE OF

MORALITY IS TIED TO PERSONAL AND
SOCIETAL RELATIONSHIPS.
CHILDREN CONTINUE TO ACCEPT THE
RULES OF AUTHORITY FIGURES, BUT
THIS IS NOW DUE TO THEIR BELIEF
THAT THIS IS NECESSARY TO ENSURE
POSITIVE RELATIONSHIPS AND
SOCIETAL ORDER.
STAGES OF CONVENTIONAL LEVEL OF
MORAL REASONING

STAGE 1

GOOD BOY / GOOD GIRL ORIENTATION

STAGE 2

LAW AND ORDER ORIENTATION

STAGE 1: GOOD BOY / GOOD GIRL
ORIENTATION

IN THIS STAGE, CHILDREN WANTS

THE APPROVAL OF OTHERS AND ACT IN
WAYS TO AVOID DISAPPROVAL.
EMPHASIS IS PLACED ON GOOD
BEHAVIOR AND PEOPLE BEING NICE TO
OTHERS.
STAGE 2: LAW AND ORDER
ORIENTATION

IN THIS STAGE, THE CHILD BLINDLY

ACCEPTS RULES AND CONVENTION
BECAUSE OF THEIR IMPORTANCE IN
MAINTAINING A FUNCTIONING
SOCIETY.
 RULES ARE SEEN AS BEING THE
SAME FOR EVERYONE, AND OBEYING
RULES BY DOING WHAT ONE IS
SUPPOSED TO DO IS SEEN AS
VALUABLE AND IMPORTANT.
POST-CONVENTIONAL LEVEL

IT IS WHERE A PERSON’S SENSE OF

MORALITY IS DEFINED IN TERMS OF
MORE ABSTRACT PRINCIPLES AND
VALUES. PEOPLE NOW BELIEVE
THAT SOME LAWS ARE UNJUST AND
SHOULD BE CHANGED OR
ELIMINATED.
 STAGES OF POST-CONVENTIONAL
LEVEL OF MORAL REASONING

STAGE 1

SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION

STAGE 2

UNIVERSAL ETHICAL ORIENTATION

STAGE 1: SOCIAL CONTRACT
ORIENTATION

IN THIS STAGE, THE WORLD IS VIEWED

AS HOLDING DIFFERENT OPINIONS,
RIGHTS, AND VALUES. SUCH PERSPECTIVES
SHOULD BE MUTUALLY RESPECTED AS
UNIQUE TO EACH PERSON OR COMMUNITY.
LAWS ARE REGARDED AS SOCIAL
CONTRACTS RATHER THAN RIGID EDICTS.
STAGE 2: UNIVERSAL-ETHICAL-
PRINCIPAL ORIENTATION

IN THIS STAGE, MORAL REASONING

IS BASED ON ABSTRACT REASONING
USING UNIVERSAL ETHICAL
PRINCIPLES. GENERALLY, THE CHOSEN
PRINCIPLES ARE ABSTRACT RATHER
THAN CONCRETE AND FOCUS ON IDEAS
SUCH AS EQUALITY, DIGNITY, OR
RESPECT.
CONSCIENCE

IT REFERS TO THE INNER SENSE OR

CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE MORAL
GOODNESS OR BLAMEWORTHINESS OF
ONE’S OWN CONDUCT, INTENTIONS, OR
CHARACTER TOGETHER WITH A
FEELING OF OBLIGATION TO DO RIGHT
OR TO BE GOOD.
 CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL
DECISION

IN THIS WAY, THE INDIVIDUAL ACTS

BECAUSE IT IS MORALLY RIGHT TO DO
SO AND NOT BECAUSE HE OR SHE
WANTS TO AVOID PUNISHMENT, IT IS IN
THEIR BEST INTEREST, IT IS EXPECTED,
IT IS LEGAL, OR IT IS PREVIOUSLY
AGREED UPON.
 IN THIS TYPE OF DECISION, LAWS
ARE VALID ONLY INSOFAR AS THEY
ARE GROUNDED IN JUSTICE, AND A
COMMITMENT TO JUSTICE CARRIES
WITH IT, AND AN OBLIGATION TO
DISOBEY UNJUST LAWS.
MODULE 3: LESSON 1

THE HUMAN ACTS

 HUMAN ACTS ARE ACTIONS THAT
PROCEED FROM THE DELIBERATE FREE
WILL OF MAN. IN A BROADER
PERSPECTIVE, THE TERM HUMAN ACTS
REFER TO ANY ACTIVITY PERFORMED
BY MAN FREELY AND KNOWINGLY.
 MORAL PHILOSOPHY, HOWEVER, TREATS
OF THE TERM HUMAN ACTS NOT IN ITS
BROADER BUT IN ITS STRICTER MEANING.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY, THEREFORE,
UNDERSTANDS HUMAN ACT AS ACTIONS
THAT ARE PROPER ONLY TO MAN.
 THESE ACTIONS ARE THOSE WHICH
MAN DOES NOT SHARE WITH THE
BRUTES, BECAUSE HUMAN ACTS ARE
RATIONAL AND WILLED ACTS.
 ACTS OF MAN ARE MAN’S ACTIONS
WHICH MAN SHARES WITH THE BRUTES.
THESE ARE ACTIONS THAT PROCEED
WITHOUT MAN’S DELIBERATE FREE
WILL SUCH AS THE BEATING OF THE
HEART, PALPITATING, SALIVATING,
BREATHING, WINKLING OF AN EYE, ETC.
ALL THESE ACTIVITIES DO NOT NEED
MAN’S FREEDOM AND WILL.
 ELEMENTS OF HUMAN ACTS

 KNOWLEDGE
 FREEDOM
 VOLUNTARINESS
KNOWLEDGE

A HUMAN ACT IS AN ACT DONE

WITH KNOWLEDGE. DOING AN ACT
WITH KNOWLEDGE MAKES THE ACT
DELIBERATE. THIS MEANS THAT THE
ONE WHO PERFORMS THE ACT HAS
INTELLECTUAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE
ACT.
 FURTHER, IN PERFORMING AN ACT
WITH KNOWLEDGE, THE ONE WHO
PERFORMS THE ACT HAS AWARENESS
OF THE MEANS TO EMPLOY AS HE
PERFORMS AN ACT AND THE AGENT
HAS ALSO THE AWARENESS OF THE
END TO ACHIEVE IN HIS ACTION.
FREEDOM

A HUMAN ACT IS AN ACT DONE

WITH FREEDOM. AN ACT DONE WITH
FREEDOM MEANS THAT THE AGENT
DOES AN ACT UNDER THE CONTROL
OF HIS WILL.
 THIS SUGGESTS THAT THE AGENT
PERFORMS AN ACT WITH FREEDOM,
HIS WILL IS NOT AFFECTED OR
INFLUENCED BY ANY CONSTRAINT
EITHER WITHIN HIMSELF OR
OUTSIDE HIMSELF.
 IN SIMPLE TERMS, IT MEANS THAT
THE ONE WHO DO THE ACT IS NOT
FORCED TO DO OR NOT TO DO A
PARTICULAR ACTION. AND BECAUSE
OF THIS, A HUMAN ACT IS PURELY
AND SOLELY DETERMINED BY THE
WILL.
VOLUNTARINESS

OF THE THREE CONSTITUENTS OF

HUMAN ACTS, IT IS VOLUNTARINESS
THAT REQUIRES THE PRESENCE OF THE
TWO OTHER CONSTITUENTS, NAMELY:
KNOWLEDGE, AND FREEDOM. THIS
MEANS THAT THE VOLUNTARY ACT IS
SYNONYMOUS WITH HUMAN ACT.
 VOLUNTARINESS REQUIRES THE
PRESENCE OF KNOWLEDGE AND
FREEDOM IN THE AGENT BECAUSE
FOR THE AGENT TO WILL AN ACT,
HE/SHE MUST HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF
WHAT THE ACT IS AND HE/SHE MUST
ALSO HAVE FREEDOM TO PERFORM
OR NOT TO PERFORM THE ACT. THUS,
A VOLUNTARY ACT IS A WILLFUL ACT.
CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN ACT

 HUMAN ACT IN RELATION TO THE

WILL
 HUMAN ACT IN RELATION TO
REASON
 HUMAN ACTS IN RELATION TO THE
WILL REFER TO THOSE ACTIONS
WHICH ARE STARTED, PERFORMED,
AND COMPLETED BY THE WILL EITHER
BY THE WILL ALONE OR THROUGH
OTHER FACULTIES WHICH ARE UNDER
THE CONTROL OF THE WILL.
 ON THE OTHER HAND, HUMAN
ACTS IN RELATION TO REASON REFER
TO THOSE ACTIONS THAT ARE EITHER
IN AGREEMENT OR IN
DISAGREEMENT WITH REASON.
 KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS IN
RELATION TO THE WILL

 ELICITED ACTS
 COMMANDED ACTS
 ELICITED ACTS ARE THOSE
ACTIONS WHICH ARE STARTED IN THE
WILL, PERFORMED BY THE WILL, AND
ARE COMPLETED BY THE WILL AS A
SOLE AGENT WITHOUT BODILY
INVOLVEMENT.
CLASSIFICATION OF ELICITED ACTS

 WISH
 INTENTION
 CONSENT
 ELECTION
 USE
 FRUITION
WISH

IT REFER TO THE PRIMORDIAL DESIRE,

LIKE, OR INCLINATION OF THE WILL TO A
THING CONCEIVED BY THE WILL AS GOOD
AND KNOWN BY THE INTELLECT.
EMBEDDED IN THE INCLINATION OF THE
WILL IS ITS WISH TO ACT. THIS WHERE
ALL HUMAN ACTS START THE WISH TO
ACT.
INTENTION

IT REFERS TO THE PURPOSIVE

TENDENCY OF THE WILL TOWARDS A
THING REGARDED AS REALIZABLE,
WHETHER THE THING IS ACTUALLY
DONE OR NOT. THIS MEANS THAT
THROUGH INTENTIONS, THE WILL IS
ASSURED THAT THE OBJECT OF ITS
INCLINATION IS ATTAINABLE.
CONSENT

IT REFERS TO A DEFINITE DECISION

AS TO WHAT MEANS SHOULD BE
USED. THIS MEANS THAT THE WILL
AND INTELLECT ARE IN A PROCESS OF
PICKING OR CHOOSING RIGHTLY THE
SHOULD-BE-USED MEANS.
ELECTION

IT REFERS TO THE ACTIVE

COMMITMENT OF THE AGENT TO
FOLLOW WHAT MEANS THE INTELLECT
HAS FINALLY OPTED AS THE RIGHT
PICK, SO MUCH SO THAT THE WILL
SHOWS ACCEPTANCE OF THE CHOICE
OF THE INTELLECT IN ORDER TO
ACHIEVE THE DESIRED GOOD.
USE

AFTER THE MIND HAS SELECTED

THE MEANS TO CARRY OUT THE
INTENTION, THIS TIME THE MIND
USES THE MEANS.
FRUITION

IT REFERS TO THE ACTUAL

ATTAINMENT OF THE DESIRED
GOOD. THIS MEANS THAT THE WILL
IS ENJOYING BECAUSE IT POSSESSES
SATISFACTION SINCE IT ACHIEVED
WHAT IT WILLED.
 COMMANDED ACTS ARE THOSE
WHICH ARE BEGUN IN THE WILL,
PERFORMED BY THE WILL, BUT
COMPLETED THROUGH BODILY
INVOLVEMENT WHICH IS UNDER THE
CONTROL OF THE WILL.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMMANDED
ACTS

 INTERNAL ACT
 EXTERNAL ACT
 MIXED ACT
INTERNAL ACTS

IT REFER TO THOSE ACTIONS DONE

BY MAN BY WAY OF HIS INTERNAL
MENTAL POWERS UNDER THE
COMMAND OF THE WILL. EXAMPLES
OF THIS COULD BE THE ACT OF
REMEMBERING, THE ACT OF NERVING
ONESELF TO MEET AN ISSUE, AND THE
ACT OF DELIBERATE USE OF THE
IMAGINATION IN VISUALIZING A
SCIENCE.
External Acts

It refer to those actions that are affected by

bodily powers of man under the command of will.
Examples of this could be that of deliberate
writing, walking, eating, spitting.
MIXED ACTS

IT REFER TO ACTIONS THAT

INCLUDE THE USE OF BODILY AND
MENTAL POWERS. EXAMPLES OF THIS
COULD BE THAT OF PAINTING, WHERE
THE ARTIST USES THE POWER OF HIS
INTELLECT THROUGH IMAGINATION
AND THE POWER OF HIS HANDS IN
SKETCHING THE CONTENTS OF HIS
IMAGINATION.
 KINDS OF HUMAN ACTS IN
RELATION TO REASON

 GOOD ACTS
 EVIL ACTS
 INDIFFERENT ACTS
GOOD ACTS

IT REFER TO THOSE ACTIONS

DONE BY MAN IN HARMONY WITH
THE DICTATES OF RIGHT REASON.
EVIL ACTS

THIS PERTAINS TO THOSE

ACTIONS DONE BY MAN IN
CONTRADICTION TO THE DICTATES
OF RIGHT REASON.
INDIFFERENT ACTS

IT REFER TO THOSE ACTIONS THAT

NEITHER GOOD NOR EVIL. INDIFFERENT
ACTS BEAR NO POSITIVE RELATION TO
THE DICTATES OF RIGHT REASON. FOR
CLARITY’S SAKE, IT EXIST ONLY IN
THEORY AND NOT IN THE ACTUAL
SITUATION. THE REASON IS THAT IN THE
CONCRETE ADVERTENCE OF ACTIONS,
ACTIONS ARE ONLY EITHER GOOD OR
BAD.
MORALITY OF THE HUMAN ACT

IT REFER TO THE GOODNESS OR

BADNESS OF AN ACT. THESE ARE WHAT
THEY CALL MORALLY GOOD AND
MORALLY EVIL. WHEN AN ACT IS DONE
IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE LAW OF GOD
AND HUMAN REASON, WHICH IS
ATTESTED TO BY THE CONSCIENCE, THE
ACT IS MORALLY GOOD.
 MODULE 3: LESSON 2

REASON AND IMPARTIALITY

REASON

IT REFERS TO THE SUFFICIENT

GROUND OF EXPLANATION AND
LOGICAL DEFENSE. IT ALSO
REFLECTS THE POWER OF
COMPREHENDING, INFERRING, OR
THINKING ESPECIALLY IN ORDERLY
RATIONAL WAYS.
IMPARTIALITY

IT IS A PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE HOLDING

THAT DECISIONS SHOULD BE BASED ON
OBJECTIVE CRITERIA, RATHER THAN ON
THE BASIS OF BIAS, PREJUDICE, OR
PREFERRING THE BENEFIT TO ONE PERSON
OVER ANOTHER FOR IMPROPER REASONS.
THE MORAL ACT

HUMAN BEINGS ARE COMPLEX

BEINGS. UNLIKE OTHER ORGANISM
THAT ARE SIMPLY DRIVEN BY
SURVIVAL INSTINCTS, HUMAN BEINGS
EXPERIENCE THE WORLD IN A
VARIETY OF WAYS THROUGH A
VARIETY OF PERCEPTIVE CAPACITIES.
 APART FROM OUR RATIONAL
CAPACITY WHICH ALLOWS US TO
RECKON REALITY WITH IMAGINATIVE
AND CALCULATIVE LENSES, OUR
FEELINGS ALSO PLAY A CRUCIAL PART
IN DETERMINING THE WAY WE
NAVIGATE THROUGH VARIOUS
SITUATIONS THAT WE EXPERIENCE.
 BEING HUMAN, WE HAVE THE
CAPACITY TO REFLEXIVELY EXAMINE
A SITUATION BEFORE PROCEEDING TO
ACT WITH RESPECT TO HOW WE FEEL.
IN OTHER WORDS, ALTHOUGH
FEELINGS PROVIDE US WITH AN
INITIAL RECKONING OF A SITUATION,
THEY SHOULD NOT BE THE SOLE
BASIS FOR OUR MOTIVES AND
ACTIONS.
 A PERSON WHO IS IN A STATE OF
RAGE TOWARDS A PERCEIVED ENEMY
OR COMPETITOR IS LIKELY UNABLE
TO PROCESS THE POSSIBLE
CONSEQUENCES OF HIS/HER ACTIONS
DONE IMPULSIVELY. FEELINGS SEEK
IMMEDIATE FULFILLMENT, AND IT IS
OUR REASON THAT TEMPERS THESE
COMPULSION.
 FEELINGS WITHOUT REASONS ARE
BLIND. REASON SETS THE COURSE
FOR ETHICAL ETHICAL AND
IMPARTIAL DECISIONS ESPECIALLY IN
MORAL SITUATIONS ALTHOUGH IT IS
NOT THE SOLE DETERMINING FACTOR
IN COMING UP WITH SUCH DECISIONS.
 REASON AND FEELINGS MUST
CONSTRUCTIVELY COMPLIMENT EACH
OTHER WHENEVER WE ARE MAKING
CHOICES. WHEN FEELING ANGER AND
JEALOUSY, AND SHAME ARE OUT OF
CONTROL, REASON PUTS THESE
EMOTIONS IN THEIR PROPER PLACES.
 THE SEVEN STEPS OF MORAL
REASONING

 STOP AND THINK

 CLARIFY GOALS
 DETERMINE FACTS
 DEVELOP OPTIONS
 CONSIDER CONSEQUENCES
 CHOOSE
 MONITOR AND MODIFY
STEP 1. STOP AND THINK

BEFORE MAKING ANY DECISION. IT IS

BEST TO TAKE A MOMENT TO THINK
ABOUT THE SITUATION ITSELF, YOUR
PLACE IN IT, AND OTHER SURROUNDING
FACTORS WHICH MERIT
CONSIDERATION SUCH AS THE PEOPLE
INVOLVED AND THE POTENTIAL
EFFECTS OF YOUR DECISION ON THEM.
STEP 2. CLARIFY GOALS

IT IS ALSO NECESSARY TO CLARIFY

YOUR SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM
AIMS. ONE OFTEN DECIDES ON THE
BASIS OF WHAT HE/SHE WANTS TO
ACCOMPLISH. SOMETIMES, IN THE HEAT
OF THE MOMENTS, SHORT-TERM WANTS
ECLIPSE LONG-TERM GOALS.
STEP 3. DETERMINE FACTS

MAKE SURE YOU GATHER ENOUGH

INFORMATION BEFORE YOU MAKE A
CHOICE. AN INTELLIGENT CHOICE IS
ONE THAT IS SUPPORTED BY VERIFIED
FACTS. YOU MUST FIRST MAKE SURE
THAT THAT WHAT YOU KNOW IS
ENOUGH TO MERIT ACTION.
STEP 4. DEVELOP OPTIONS

ONCE YOU ARE CLEAR IN TERMS OF

YOUR GOALS AND FACTS, TRY TO COME
UP WITH ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS TO
EXHAUST ALL POSSIBLE COURSES OF
ACTIONS. MOST OF THE TIME, THE
PRESSURE OF A SITUATION MAY MAKE
YOU FEEL YOU HAVE LESS OPTIONS
THAN YOU THINK.
STEPS 5. CONSIDER CONSEQUENCES

FILTER YOUR CHOICES AND SEPARATE

THE ETHICAL FROM THE UNETHICAL
CHOICES BEARING IN MIND BOTH YOUR
MOTIVES AND THE POTENTIAL
CONSEQUENCES OF YOUR ACTION.
THINK OF LONG - TERM CONSEQUENCES
AND ACT IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE
PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS.
STEP 6. CHOOSE

MAKE A DECISION. IF THE CHOICE IS

HARD TO MAKE, TRY CONSULTING
OTHERS WHO MAY HAVE KNOWLEDGE
OR EXPERIENCE OF YOUR SITUATION.
FIND PEOPLE WITH VIRTUOUS
CHARACTER AND COMPARE YOUR
REASONING WITH THEIR MORAL
ANALYSIS.
STEP 7. MONITOR AND MODIFY

MONITOR WHAT HAPPENS AFTER

YOUR DECISION AND HAVE ENOUGH
HUMILITY TO MODIFY YOUR ACTIONS
OR BEHAVIOR AS NECESSARY. PRIDE
MAY GET IN THE WAY OF ADMITTING
THAT YOU MIGHT HAVE NOT THOUGHT
OUT A DECISION WLL ENOUGH.
 MORAL CHARACTER TRAITS ARE
THOSE DISPOSITIONS OF CHARACTER
FOR WHICH IT IS APPROPRIATE TO
HOLD AGENTS MORALLY
RESPONSIBLE. A TRAIT FOR WHICH
THE AGENT IS DESERVING OF A
POSITIVE REACTIVE ATTITUDE, SUCH
AS PRAISE OR GRATITUDE, IS A VIRTUE
 MORAL CHARACTER TRAITS ARE
RELATIVELY STABLE AND RELIABLE
DISPOSITIONS, AND THUS SHOULD BE
REASONABLY GOOD PREDICTORS
OVER TIME OF AN AGENT’S
BEHAVIOR IF THAT AGENT IS IN A
TRAIT-RELEVANT SITUATION.
 MORAL CHARACTER TRAITS ARE
NOT JUST DISPOSITIONS TO ENGAGE
IN CERTAIN OUTWARD BEHAVIORS;
THEY CAN ALSO BE DISPOSITIONS
TO HAVE CERTAIN EMOTIONS OR
AFFECTIONS.
 IN ORDER FOR A MORAL
CHARACTER TRAIT TO BE A VIRTUE,
IT MUST NOT ONLY BE IN ACCORD
WITH THE RELEVANT MORAL
NORMS, BUT THE DISPOSITION MUST
ALSO BE INFORMED BY PROPER
REASONING ABOUT THE MATTER AT
HAND.
MORAL DISPOSITION

IT REFERS TO THE PERSONS

ABILITY TO BEHAVE IN CERTAIN
WAYS IN CERTAIN SORTS OF
CIRCUMSTANCES IN ACCORDANCE
TO THE APPROPRIATE VIRTUES.
MODULE 3: LESSON 3

BIOETHICS
 AT THE TURN OF THE 20TH CENTURY
PERSONALISTS THEORIST EMERGED AS A
REACTION TO PERCEIVED
DEPERSONALIZATION CAUSED BY THE
ADVENT OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY,
AND TOTALISTIC SYSTEMS IN
PHILOSOPHY. IT POSITS THE VALUE OF
PERSONHOOD AS A CENTER OF LIFE,
EXPERIENCE, DECISIONS, AND ACTIONS.
BIOETHICS

IT REFERS TO THE DISCIPLINE

DEALING WITH THE ETHICAL
IMPLICATIONS OF BIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH AND ITS APPLICATION IN
ORDER TO PRESERVE THE SANCTITY OF
LIFE.
HEALTH

IT REFERS TO THE STATE OF THE

BODY, WHICH ENABLES IT TO
PERFORM EVERY FUNCTIONS,
WHICH CAN REASONABLY
EXPECTED OF IT, TO ACCOMMODATE
ITSELF TO EACH ORDINARY TASKS.
PERSONAL HEALTH RESPONSIBILITY

TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S OWN

HEALTH IS AN ESSENTIAL STEP IN
DISEASE PREVENTION AS WELL AS
PROTOCOLS FOR HEALING AND
RECOVERY FROM DISEASE. IT INVOLVES
ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN ONE’S OWN
HEALTH AND HEALING PLAN THROUGH
EDUCATION AND LIFESTYLE CHANGES.
 ONE NEEDS TO BE SENSITIVE ABOUT
THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD HEALTH.
A SIMPLE EVERYDAY EXERCISE,
AVOIDING ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO
AND ILLEGAL DRUGS, PROPER
HYGIENE, ENOUGH REST LIKE 8-HOUR
SLEEP, EATING IN PROPER TIME AND A
BALANCE DIET ARE FEW THINGS THAT
WE CAN DO FOR OUR BODY.
 PEOPLE SHOULD THINK MORE ON
PREVENTION NOT ON CURE.
DISEASES MAY BE AVOIDED IF
EVERYONE IS CONSCIOUS ABOUT
WHAT THEY DO, SINCE MOST
DISEASES ARE ACQUIRED AS A
PRODUCT OF UNHEALTHY LIFESTYLE.
 PART OF PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
TO HEALTH IS TO KNOW THEIR FAMILY
HISTORY, THIS IS ONE WAY TO
DETERMINE HEREDITARY ILLNESSES
WHICH CAN BE AVOIDED IN THE
FUTURE.
 IN OUR COUNTRY, SEVERAL
MEASURES HAVE BEEN ENACTED TO
INSTILL HEALTH AWARENESS AND
IMPOSE PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY
TOWARDS HEALTH.
 LIKE THE ANTI-SMOKING
CAMPAIGN, DISCOURAGEMENT TO
TAKE MEDICINES WITHOUT MEDICAL
PRESCRIPTION, AND
ENCOURAGEMENT TO SEEK MEDICAL
ASSISTANCE AND SERVICES FROM
LICENSED PHYSICIAN.
 ABUSING ONE’S BODY VIOLATES
GOD’S COMMANDMENTS. IT IS A
COMMON BELIEF THAT OUR BODY
COMES FROM GOD – WE ARE TASKED
TO TAKE CARE OF IT AND NOT TO
DESTROY IT. IT IS OWNED BY GOD
AND IT IS FOR OUR LOVE ONE AND
FELLOWMEN.
 CRIMES AGAINST HUMAN LIFE

 SUICIDE
 STERILIZATION
 EUTHANASIA
 DRUG ADDICTION
 ALCOHOLISM
 ABORTION
 SELLING ORGANS FOR TRANSPLANTS
SUICIDE

IT IS LITERALLY DERIVED FROM

LATIN WORD SUICIDE COMBINING
THE PRONOUN FOR SELF AND A VERB
FOR TO KILL. THUS, SUICIDE IN
ESSENCE, IS AN ACT OF HUMAN
BEING INTENTIONALLY CAUSING HIS
OR HER OWN DEATH.
 OTHER METHODS OF SUICIDE
INCLUDES:

 BLUNT FORCE TRAUMA

 EXSANGUINATIONS
 INTERNAL DROWNING
 ELECTROCUTION
 IMMOLATION
 INTENTIONAL STARVATION
STERILIZATION

IT REFERS TO THE PROCEDURE

PERFORMED TO STOP FERTILITY
PERMANENTLY, IN EITHER MALE OR
FEMALE. IT IS CONSIDERED AS THE
MOST RELIABLE AND MOST
COMMONLY USED TYPE OF
CONTRACEPTION.
 STERILIZATION IS DONE EITHER TO
THE MALE OR FEMALE THROUGH
OPERATION. OPERATION ON WOMEN
ARE COMMONLY CALLED TUBAL
LIGATION AS THE PROCEDURE AIMS
TO OCCLUDE OR LIGATE THE
FALLOPIAN TUBES.
 MALE STERILIZATION ON THE
OTHER HAND, IS ACHIEVED BY THE
OPERATION OF VASECTOMY;
CUTTING OR LEGATING, ON BOTH
SIDES THE VAS DEFERENS, WHICH
TRANSPORT SPERM FROM THE
TESTICLES TO THE PENIS.
Euthanasia

It usually refer to the act of quickening

death for a merciful motive. Euthanasia,
however, is different from suicide because
death is not a certain in suicide; while the
opposite is true for euthanasia.
 TYPES OF EUTHANASIA

 PASSIVE EUTHANASIA
 ACTIVE EUTHANASIA
PASSIVE EUTHANASIA

IT SIMPLY REFERS TO THE RIGHTS OF

THE PATIENTS TO REFUSE LIFE
SUPPORT, MEDICINES, AND MEDICAL
PROCEDURES. IT IS SAID THAT IT IS
MORE WIDELY ACCEPTED BECAUSE
THERE IS NO LAW THAT FORCES AN
INDIVIDUAL TO RECEIVE
INVOLUNTARY LIFE SUPPORT.
ACTIVE EUTHANASIA

ON THE OTHER HAND, IS MORE

CONTROVERSIAL AND AS SUCH
REMAINS ILLEGAL WORLDWIDE. IT
SIMPLY PERTAINS TO THE VOLUNTARY
AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE PHYSICIAN
AND THE DYING PATIENT TO PURSUE
ACTS THAT EVENTUALLY LEAD TO
DEATH.
DRUG ADDICTION

THIS IS THE STATE OF PERIODIC

AND CHRONIC INTOXICATION
DETRIMENTAL TO THE INDIVIDUAL
AND TO THE SOCIETY, PRODUCED BY
THE REPEATED CONSUMPTION OF A
DRUG.
 THE BIBLE TEACHES THAT
CHRISTIANS SHOULD TAKE CARE OF
THEIR BODIES AND USE THEM TO
SERVE GOD. ONE’S BODY AND LIFE
BELONG TO GOD, AND WE ARE ONLY
ENTRUSTED TO USE IT IN ORDER TO
ACCOMPLISHED HIS WILL LIKE A
STEWARDS. IT IS INTRINSICALLY
EVIL TO DO THINGS THAT WILL
HARM OUR HEALTH
ALCOHOLISM

THIS IS AN ACT OF DRINKING

ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AT A LEVEL
THAT INTERFERES WITH PHYSICAL
HEALTH, MENTAL HEALTH, AND
SOCIAL, FAMILY, OR JOB
RESPONSIBILITIES.
 THE BIBLE DOES NOT PROHIBIT
THE DRINKING OF ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGES. WHAT IT DOES
CONDEMN IS DRINKING
EXCESSIVELY WHICH CAN BE
ASSOCIATED WITH GLUTTONY.
ALCOHOLISM WILL ALWAYS BE
REGARDED AS IMMORAL IF IT IS A
HABIT.
ABORTION

THIS REFERS TO THE

TERMINATION OF A PREGNANCY BY
THE REMOVAL OR EXPULSION FROM
THE UTERUS OR EMBRYO
RESULTING IN OR CAUSING ITS
DEATH.
 THE TYPES OF ABORTION

 SPONTANEOUS ABORTION
 INDUCED ABORTION
 THERAPEUTIC ABORTION
 ELECTIVE OR VOLUNTARY
SPONTANEOUS ABORTION

IT IS OFTEN THE BODY’S WAY OF

PREVENTING THE BIRTH OF A
DEFECTIVE CHILD, ALTHOUGH
SOMETIMES THEY ARE DUE TO
MATERNAL HEALTH PROBLEMS.
INDUCED ABORTION

THIS RESULTS FROM THE

PLANNED INTERRUPTION OF A
PREGNANCY. IT PREVENTS A
CONCEPTION FROM BECOMING A
LIVE BIRTH.
THERAPEUTIC ABORTION

THIS RTERM REFERS TO

ABORTIONS THOUGHT NECESSARY
BECAUSE OF FETSL ANOMALIES OR
TO PROTECT THE HEALTH OF THE
MOTHER WHEN A BIRTH MIGHT BE
LIFE THREATENING OR PHYSICALLY
DAMAGING.
ELECTIVE OR VOLUNTARY
ABORTION

THIS REFERS TO THE

INTERRUPTION OF A PREGNANCY
BEFORE VIABILITY AT THE WOMAN’S
REQUEST FOR REASONS OTHER
THAN FETAL ANOMALIES OR
MATERNAL RISKS.
LEGAL ABORTION AND ILLEGAL
ABORTION

A LEGAL ABORTION IS A PROCEDURE

PERFORMED BY A LICENSED PHYSICIAN
INTENDED TO TERMINATE A SUSPECTED
OR KNOWN INTRAUTERINE PREGNANCY.
AN ILLEGAL ABORTION IS INDUCED BY
SOMEONE WHO IS NOT A PHYSICIAN, OR
SELF-INDUCED.
SELLING ORGAN FOR TRANSPLANT

IT REFERS TO EXCHANGING
ORGANS FOR MONEY OR OTHER
VALUABLE CONSIDERATIONS WHICH
LEADS TO COMMODITIZATION OF THE
HUMAN BODIES AND EXPLOITATION
OF THE POOR FOR THE BENEFIT OF
THE RICH.
 MODULE 4: LESSON 1

ARISTOTLE’S THOUGHTS
ARISTOTLE’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY

ARISTOTLE WAS BORN IN THE GREEK

COLONY OF STAGIRA IN MACEDONIA.
NICOMACHUS, HIS FATHER WAS A
STUDENT OF NATURAL HISTORY AND AN
EMINENT PHYSICIAN, WHO SERVED
UNDER AMYTAS II, KING OF
MACEDONIA, FATHER TO PHILIP THE
GREAT.
 ARISTOTLE STUDIED IN PLATO’S
ACADEMY AND IS UNANIMOUSLY
CONSIDERED TO BE PLATO’S
GREATEST STUDENT. HE PROVIDED
PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS OF SCIENCE
WHICH PROVED DOMINANT FOR 18
CENTURIES.
 IN 342 B.C., HE RETURNED TO
MACEDON AS TUTOR AND THEN
ADVISER TO KING PHILIP II OF
MACEDON'S SON ALEXANDER, WHO
BECAME ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
LATER HE BECAME A PUBLIC TEACHER
IN ATHENS, USING A GARDEN HE
OWNED WHERE HE FOUNDED HIS OWN
SCHOOL CALLED THE LYCEUM.
 HIS COLLECTED LECTURES COVER
MOST OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE TIME
IN SCIENCE, AND SOME OTHER FIELDS
SUCH AS LOGIC AND ETHICS, AND
INCLUDE MUCH OF ARISTOTLE'S OWN
WORK IN ZOOLOGY AND ANATOMY.
 ARISTOTLE CONSIDERS THAT
MORALITY IS NOT MERELY A
MATTER OF KNOWING THE GOOD
BUT ACTUALLY DOING OR
PRACTICING THE GOOD HABITUALLY.
 FOR ARISTOTLE, WE CAN ONLY
FULLY ACTUALIZE OUR POTENTIAL
AS HUMAN BEINGS ONCE WE
UNDERSTAND WHAT BEING HUMAN
ESSENTIALLY AIMS TO AND DO THE
NECESSARY THINGS TO FULFILL THAT
IN THE MOST EXCELLENT WAY
POSSIBLE.
 ACCORDING TO ARISTOTLE, ETHICS
IS GROUNDED IN THE FORMATION OF
ONE’S CHARACTER - A WAY OF BEING
AND LIVING IN HARMONY WITH THE
HUMAN PERSON’S PROPER END
(TELOS).
THE CONCEPT OF ETHICS

ARISTOTLE ASSUMES THAT ANY

ACTIVITY, PRACTICAL OR
THEORETICAL, AIMS TOWARDS
SOME ENDS OR GOOD. ACQUIRED.
 FOR ARISTOTLE, ETHICS IS A
MATTER OF LIVING WELL THROUGH
THE HABITUAL PRACTICE OF
VIRTUE WHICH ESSENTIALLY
TRANSLATES INTO HAVING A
VIRTUOUS OR EXCELLENT
CHARACTER.
 ARISTOTLE IS NOT SIMPLY
INTERESTED IN FINDING OUT THE
DIFFERENT ENDS OR PURPOSES FOR
HUMAN LIFE. HE WANTS TO FIND
OUT WHAT OUR CHIEF END IS. HE IS
INTERESTED IN FINDING OUT WHAT
ALL OUR LIVES ESSENTIALLY AND
ULTIMATELY AIM TO.
 ARISTOTLE NAMES THE CHIEF
GOOD FOR THE HUMAN PERSON AS
HAPPINESS OR EUDAIMONIA, WHICH
IS AN ACTIVITY OF THE SOUL THAT
PURPOSIVELY ATTEMPTS TO CHOOSE
THE MEAN BETWEEN TWO
EXTREMES IN THE REALM OF
MORALITY.
 FOR ARISTOTLE, HAPPINESS IS THE
SELF-SUFFICIENT, FINAL, AND
ATTAINABLE GOAL OF HUMAN LIFE.
IT IS SELF-SUFFICIENT BECAUSE TO
HAVE IT MAKES HUMAN LIFE
COMPLETE.
 FOR ARISTOTLE, OUR CHIEF GOD
IS NOT SOMETHING WE MERELY
POSSESS BUT SOMETHING THAT WE
CONTINUALLY ACTUALIZE.
ACCORDING TO HIM, EUDAIMONIA IS
AN ACTIVITY OF THE SOUL IN
ACCORDANCE WITH VIRTUE. HE
POSTULATES THAT HAPPINESS IS AN
ACTIVITY OF THE SOUL.
 ARISTOTLE TEACHES US THAT
CHARACTER IS THE MOST ESSENTIAL
COMPONENT OF ETHICS. A
VIRTUOUS CHARACTER IS THE
RESULT OF THE PROPER
COMBINATION OF PRACTICAL
WISDOM AND HABITUATION IN THE
THE PURSUIT OF THE MEAN.
THE CONCEPT OF SOUL

FOR HIM, THE SOUL IS THE PART OF

THE HUMAN BEING THAT EMANATES
THE BODY. IT IS THE LIFE PTRINCIPLE
IN MAN. IT IS COMPOSED OF BOTH
RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL
ELEMENTS.
 THE RATIONAL PART OF THE SOUL
IS DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS - THE
SPECULATIVE WHICH IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR KNOWLEDGE,
AND THE PRACTICAL WHICH IS
RESPONSIBLE FOR CHOICE AND
ACTION.
 THE SPECULATIVE PART IS
CONCERNED WITH PURE THOUGHT
AND IS ESSENTIALLY THE BASE OF
CONTEMPLATION, WHILE THE
PRACTICAL INTELLECT IS IN
CHARGE OF ACTION AND THE
PRACTICAL DETERMINATION OF THE
PROPER MEANS TO ATTAIN A
SPECIFIC END.
THE CONCEPT OF VIRTUE

THE GREEK WORD FOR VIRTUE IS

ARÊTE WHICH MEANS EXCELLENCE.
BY EXCELLENCE, THE GREEKS
THOUGHT OF HOW A THING FULFILLS
ITS FUNCTIONS IN ACCORDANCE WITH
ITS NATURE.
VIRTUE

IT IS A STATE OR CHARACTER
WHICH MAKES A PERSON GOOD AND
CAPABLE OF FULFILLING HIS/HER END
(TELOS) AS A HUMAN PERSON.
 FOR ARISTOTLE, VIRTUE IS A STATE
OF ONE’S CHARACTER THAT IS THE
RESULT OF CHOICE. THIS CHOICE IS
GOVERNED BY PRUDENCE OR
PRACTICAL WISDOM (PHRONESIS).
 PHRONESIS IS THE HUMAN
PERSON’S INSTRUMENT IN DEALING
WITH MORAL CHOICES. IT IS A KIND
OF KNOWLEDGE THAT DEALS WITH
PRACTICAL MATTERS AND NOT JUST
WITH IDEAS OR CONCEPTS.
 PHRONESIS IS THE INTELLECTUAL
VIRTUE RESPONSIBLE FOR BRINGING
THE HUMAN PERSON CLOSER TO
HIS/HER CHIEF GOOD IN THE REALM
OF MORALITY.
 ARISTOTLE BELIEVED THAT THERE
ARE TWO KINDS OF VIRTUES – MORAL
AND INTELLECTUAL. MORAL VIRTUES
HAS TO DO WITH EXCELLENCE IN THE
PERFORMANCE OF DECISIONS
RELATING TO MORAL AND PRACTICAL
ACTIVITY.
 ON THE OTHER HAND, THE
INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES HAVE
SOMETHING TO DO WITH ONE’S
CAPACITY TO HARNESS REASON’S
CONTEMPLATIVE CAPACITY FOR
ARRIVING AT KNOWLEDGE.
 ARISTOTLE EMPHASIZES THE ROLE
OF PRACTICE AND HABIT IN THE
FORMATION OF MORAL VIRTUE. NO
PERSON IS BORN MORALLY
VIRTUOUS . HOWEVER, ALL PERSONS
HAVE THE LATENT POTENTIALITY TO
BE SO, IF ONLY THEY HABITUALLY DO
EXCELLENT DEEDS.
 MODULE 4: LESSON 2

ST THOMAS AQUINAS’ THOUGHTS

ST THOMAS AQUINAS SHORT
BIOGRAPHY

HE WAS A SCHOLASTIC
PHILOSOPHER AND THEOLOGIAN,
BORN IN THE CASTLE OF
ROCCASECCA, NEAR AQUINO, ITALY.
 HE STUDIED WITH THE
BENEDICTINES OF MONTE CASSINO,
AND AT THE UNIVERSITY OF
NAPLES. AGAINST THE BITTER
OPPOSITION OF HIS FAMILY, HE
ENTERED THE DOMINICAN ORDER
OF MENDICANT FRIARS.
 HIS BROTHERS KIDNAPPED HIM
AND KEPT HIM A PRISONER IN THE
PATERNAL CASTLE FOR OVER A
YEAR; IN THE END HE MADE HIS
WAY TO COLOGNE TO BECOME A
PUPIL OF ALBERTUS MAGNUS.
 IN 1252 HE WENT TO PARIS, AND
TAUGHT THERE, UNTIL IN 1258 HE WAS
SUMMONED BY THE POPE TO TEACH
SUCCESSIVELY IN ANAGNI, ORVIETO,
ROME, AND VITERBO.
 HE DIED AT FOSSANUOVA ON HIS
WAY TO DEFEND THE PAPAL CAUSE AT
THE COUNCIL OF LYON, AND WAS
CANONIZED IN 1323.
 HIS PROLIFIC WRITINGS
DISPLAY GREAT INTELLECTUAL
POWER, AND HE CAME TO
EXERCISE ENORMOUS
INTELLECTUAL AUTHORITY
THROUGHOUT THE CHURCH.
 IN HIS PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS
HE TRIED TO COMBINE AND
RECONCILE ARISTOTLE'S SCIENTIFIC
RATIONALISM WITH CHRISTIAN
DOCTRINES OF FAITH AND
REVELATION.
 HIS BEST-KNOWN WORKS ARE TWO
HUGE ENCYCLOPEDIC SYNTHESES.
THE SUMMA CONTRA GENTILES THAT
DEALS CHIEFLY WITH THE
PRINCIPLES OF NATURAL RELIGION.
 HIS SUMMA THEOLOGIAE THAT
CONTAINS HIS MATURE THOUGHT IN
SYSTEMATIC FORM, AND INCLUDES
THE FAMOUS FIVE WAYS OR PROOFS
OF THE EXISTENCE OF GOD. THOMISM
NOW REPRESENTS THE GENERAL
TEACHING OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH.
 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS BEGINS
FROM THE STANDPOINT OF FAITH. HIS
PERSPECTIVE PRESUPPOSES THE
EXISTENCE OF A GOD WHO IS THE
AUTHOR (SOURCE) AND THE GOAL
(END) OF ALL ETERNITY.
 FOR AQUINAS, GOD REVEALS HIS
GOODWILL AS THE ETERNAL LAW
REFLECTED IN THE ORDER OF
REALITY. RELATING WITH THE LAW
AS GOVERNING ALL IS RELATING
WITH GOD HIMSELF WHOSE WILL
EMANATES TO GOVERN ALL THAT IS.
 HUMAN FREEDOM FOR ST THOMAS
AQUINAS, IS AN IMPRINT OF THE
DIVINE WILL IN THE VERY BEING OF
THE HUMAN PERSON. THIS SHARING
OF HUMAN REASON IN THE ETERNAL
WILL OR DIVINE WILL IS FOR
HIM/HER THE NATURAL LAW.
 AQUINAS DESCRIBES LAW AS A
CERTAIN RULE AND MEASURE OF
ACTS WHEREBY MAN IS INDUCED TO
ACT OR IS RESTRAINED FROM
ACTING.
 BECAUSE THE RULE AND
MEASURE OF HUMAN ACTIONS IS
REASON, LAW HAS AN ESSENTIAL
RELATION TO REASON; IN THE FIRST
PLACE TO DIVINE REASON; IN THE
SECOND PLACE TO HUMAN REASON,
WHEN IT ACTS CORRECTLY.
 LAW IS DIRECTED BY ITS NATURE
TO THE GOOD, AND ESPECIALLY TO
THE UNIVERSAL OR COMMON GOOD.
IT IS ADDRESSED NOT PRIMARILY TO
PRIVATE PERSONS BUT TO THE
WHOLE PEOPLE MEETING IN
COMMON.
 THE APPLICATION OF THE LAW TO
THOSE TO WHOM IT IS APPLIED, AND
THE COMMUNICATION OF THIS LAW
TO THEM -IS ESSENTIAL TO THE
NATURE OF THE LAW.
 THE FOUR MAIN KINDS OF LAW

 NATURAL LAW
 ETERNAL LAW
 DIVINE LAW
 HUMAN LAW
NATURAL LAW

IT IS THE LAW INSCRIBED BY GOD

INTO THE HEART AND MIND OF EVERY
MAN WHICH HELP THEM DISCERN
WHAT IS GOOD FROM WHAT IS NOT.
 IT IS BASED ON FIRST PRINCIPLE,
THAT GOOD IS TO BE DONE AND
PROMOTED, AND EVIL IS TO BE
AVOIDED. ALL OTHER PRECEPTS OF
THE NATURAL LAW ARE BASED ON
THIS.
 FOR AQUINAS, THE NATURAL LAW
IMPINGES ON THE VERY FREEDOM OF
THE HUMAN BEING WHO CAN KNOW
HIS/HER OPTIONS AND VOLUNTARILY
WILL TO TAKE ACTIONS.
ETERNAL LAW

IT IS IDENTICAL TO THE MIND OF

GOD AS SEEN BY GOD HIMSELF. IT CAN
BE CALLED LAW BECAUSE GOD
STANDS TO THE UNIVERSE WHICH HE
CREATES AS A RULER DOES TO A
COMMUNITY WHICH HE RULES.
DIVINE LAW

IT IIS DERIVED FROM ETERNAL LAW

AS IT APPEARS HISTORICALLY TO
HUMANS, ESPECIALLY THROUGH
REVELATION, IT APPEARS TO HUMAN
BEINGS AS DIVINE COMMANDS.
DIVINE LAW IS DIVIDED INTO THE OLD
LAW AND THE NEW LAW.
 THE OLD LAW AND THE NEW LAW
ROUGHLY CORRESPONDS TO THE OLD
TESTAMENTS AND THE NEW
TESTAMENTS OF THE BIBLE.
 WHEN HE SPEAKS OF THE OLD LAW,
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS IS THINKING
MAINLY OF THE TEN
COMMANDMENTS. WHEN HE SPEAKS
OF THE NEW LAW, THE TEACHINGS OF
JESUS CHRIST.
 THE OLD LAW COMMANDS
CONDUCT EXTERNALLY AND IT
REACHES HUMANS THROUGH THEIR
CAPACITY FOR FEAR. THIS LAW
PROMISED EARTHLY REWARDS.
 THE NEW LAW COMMANDS
INTERNAL CONDUCT, IT REACHES
HUMANS BY THE EXAMPLE OF DIVINE
LOVE. THIS LAW PROMISES HEAVENLY
REWARDS.
HUMAN LAW

IT IS WHAT WE COMMONLY CALL

POSITIVE LAW, THE LAWS ACTUALLY
ENACTED AND PUT IN FORCE IN OUR
HUMAN COMMUNITIES.
 AQUINAS THINKS OF HUMAN LAWS
AS LAWS, DEVISED BY HUMAN
REASON, ADAPTED TO PARTICULAR
GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, AND
SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES.
 HUMAN LAW IS DIRECTED TO THE
COMMON GOOD. THE PROMOTION OF
VIRTUE IS NECESSARY FOR THE
COMMON GOOD, AND HUMAN LAWS
ARE INSTRUMENTS IN THE
PROMOTION OF VIRTUE.
COSCIENCE

FOR AQUINAS, THE CONSCIENCE

REFERS TO THE PROPER FUNCTIONING
OF REASON IN MOVING THE HUMAN
PERSON TOWARDS AN END GOAL
THAT IS FITTING OF HIS/HER DIGNITY.
 ACCORDING TO HIM, THERE ARE
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CONSCIENCE
THAT MAY LEAD USTO WRONG
DOING, NAMELY: THE CERTAIN, THE
PERPLEXED, THE DOUBTFUL, AND
THE ERRONEOUS.
CORRECT CONSCIENCE

IT JUDGES WHAT IS REALLY GOOD

AS GOOD AND WHAT IS REALLY EVIL
AS EVIL
CERTAIN CONSCIENCE

IT HAS A SUBJECTIVE ASSURANCE

OF THE LAWFULNESS OF
UNLAWFULNESS OF AN ACT. THIS
IMPLIES THAT THE PERSON IS SURE
OF HIS DECISION.
PERPLEXED CONSCIENCE

THIS TYPE OF ERRONEOUS

CONSCIENCE UNABLE TO GRASPED
SOMETHING CLEARLY AND FEARS SIN
IN WHATEVER CHOICE IT MAKES.
DOUBTFUL CONSCIENCE

THIS IS A STATE OF MIND WHEN IT

CANNOT DECIDE WITH CERTAINTY
WHETHER AN ACTION OR BEHAVIOR IS
GOOD OR BAD LEAVING YOU UNSURE
OF WHAT TO DO OR NOT HAVING ANY
PEACE OF MIND AFTER PERFORMING A
CERTAIN ACTION.
ERRONEOUS CONSCIENCE

IT JUDGES INCORRECTLY THAT IS

WHAT IS GOOD IS EVIL AND WHAT IS
EVIL IS GOOD. IT IS A RESULT OF
LONG TIME PERSISTENCE IN DOING,
THAT THE SELF IS NO LONGER
CONCERNED WHETHER WHAT HE/SHE
DOES IS GOOD OR NOT BAD.
THE RELATIONAL AND PERFECTION OF
LOVE

THE HUMAN PERSON IS NOT ONLY

BOUND TO FIND FULL MAXIMUM
CAPACITY OF ONE;S OWN BEING IN A
SEARCH FOR SELF-ACTUALIZATION. BUT
BY THOROUGHLY RELATING WITH OTHER
OTHER HUMAN PERSONS AND ALL OF
CREATION.
 ST THOMAS AQUINAS HOLDS THAT
THE TRUE DESTINY OF MAN LIES IN A
GRATUITOUS PERFECTION THAT IS
BEYOND THE HUMAN PERSON YET
RELATES WITH HIM/HER THOROUGHLY
IN FREEDOM, AND THEREFORE, IN
FULLNESS OF LOVE.
 THE HIGHEST PERFECTION OF MAN
FOR ST THOMAS AQUINAS IS IN
HIS/HER WANTING TO BE WITH GOD.
IN OTHER WORDS, THE ETHICAL MAN
IS NOT THE PERFECT MAN BUT ONE
WHO WANTS TO BE SAVED BY
COOPERATING IN FREEDOM WITH
WHAT IS ATTAINABLE FOR HIM/HER.
 THOMAS'S ETHICS ARE BASED ON
THE CONCEPT OF FIRST PRINCIPLES OF
ACTION. THOMAS DEFINED THE FOUR
CARDINAL VIRTUES AS PRUDENCE,
TEMPERANCE, JUSTICE, AND
FORTITUDE. FOR HIM, THE CARDINAL
VIRTUES ARE NATURAL AND
REVEALED IN NATURE, AND THEY ARE
BINDING ON EVERYONE.
 THOMAS ALSO GREATLY
INFLUENCED CATHOLIC
UNDERSTANDINGS OF MORTAL AND
VENIAL SIN. THOMAS VIEWED
THEOLOGY, AS A SCIENCE, THE RAW
MATERIAL DATA OF WHICH CONSISTS
OF WRITTEN SCRIPTURES AND THE
TRADITION OF THE CATHOLIC
CHURCH.
 ACCORDING TO HIM, FAITH AND
REASON, WHILE DISTINCT BUT
RELATED, ARE THE TWO PRIMARY
TOOLS FOR PROCESSING THE DATA OF
THEOLOGY. ST. THOMAS BELIEVED
BOTH WERE NECESSARY FOR ONE TO
OBTAIN TRUE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD.
 THOMAS BELIEVED THAT THE
EXISTENCE OF GOD IS NEITHER
OBVIOUS NOR UNPROVABLE. IN THE
SUMMA THEOLOGICA, HE CONSIDERED
IN GREAT DETAIL FIVE REASONS FOR
THE EXISTENCE OF GOD. THESE ARE
WIDELY KNOWN AS THE QUINQUE
VIAE, OR THE FIVE WAYS.
 CONCERNING THE NATURE OF GOD,
THOMAS FELT THE BEST APPROACH,
COMMONLY CALLED THE VIA
NEGATIVA, IS TO CONSIDER WHAT GOD
IS NOT. THIS LED HIM TO PROPOSE
FIVE STATEMENTS ABOUT THE DIVINE
QUALITIES:
 GOD IS SIMPLE, WITHOUT
COMPOSITION OF PARTS, SUCH AS
BODY AND SOUL, OR MATTER AND
FORM.

 GOD IS PERFECT, LACKING

NOTHING. THAT IS, GOD IS
DISTINGUISHED FROM OTHER BEINGS
ON ACCOUNT OF GOD'S COMPLETE
ACTUALITY.
 GOD IS INFINITE. THAT IS, THE
UNITY OF GOD IS SUCH THAT GOD'S
ESSENCE IS THE SAME AS GOD'S
EXISTENCE. THIS INFINITY IS TO BE
DISTINGUISHED FROM INFINITY OF
SIZE AND INFINITY OF NUMBER.
 GOD IS IMMUTABLE, INCAPABLE OF
CHANGE ON THE LEVELS OF GOD'S
ESSENCE AND CHARACTER.

 GOD IS ONE, WITHOUT

DIVERSIFICATION WITHIN GOD'S
SELF. THE UNITY OF GOD IS SUCH
THAT GOD'S ESSENCE IS THE SAME
AS GOD'S EXISTENCE.
MODULE 4: LESSON 4

UTILITARIANISM
JEREMY BENTHAM’S SHORT
BIOGRAPHY

HE WAS BORN IN SPITALFIELDS,

LONDON, INTO A WEALTHY FAMILY THAT
SUPPORTED THE TORIES. HE WAS
REPORTEDLY A CHILD PRODIGY.
 HE WAS FOUND AS A TODDLER
SITTING AT HIS FATHER'S DESK READING
A MULTI-VOLUME HISTORY OF
ENGLAND, AND HE BEGAN TO STUDY
LATIN AT THE AGE OF THREE.
 HE ATTENDED WESTMINSTER
SCHOOL. HE TOOK HIS BACHELOR'S AND
MASTER'S DEGREE AND THE QUEEN’S
COLLEG IN OXFORD. HE BECAME
DEEPLY FRUSTRATED WITH THE
COMPLEXITY OF THE ENGLISH LEGAL
CODE, WHICH HE TERMED THE DEMON
OF CHICANE.
 HE WAS AN ENGLISH JURIST,
PHILOSOPHER, AND LEGAL AND SOCIAL
REFORMER. HE BECAME A LEADING
THEORIST IN ANGLO-AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHY OF LAW.
 BENTHAM IS A POLITICAL
ALSO
RADICAL WHOSE IDEAS INFLUENCED
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WELFARISM.
HE IS BEST KNOWN FOR HIS
ADVOCACY OF UTILITARIANISM AND
ANIMAL RIGHTS, AND THE IDEA OF
THE PANOPTICON.
 HIS POSITION INCLUDED ARGUMENTS
IN FAVOR OF INDIVIDUAL AND
ECONOMIC FREEDON, USURY, THE
SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE,
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION, EQUAL
RIGHTS FOR WOMEN, THE RIGHT TO
DIVORCE, AND THE DECRIMINALIZING
OF HOMOSEXUAL ACTS.
 HE ARGUED FOR THE ABOLITION OF
SLAVERY AND THE DEATH PENALTY AND
FOR THE ABOLITION OF PHYSICAL
PUNISHMENT, INCLUDING THAT OF
CHILDREN. ALTHOUGH STRONGLY IN
FAVOR OF THE EXTENSION OF
INDIVIDUAL LEGAL RIGHTS, HE
OPPOSED THE IDEA OF NATURAL LAW
AND NATURAL RIGHTS.
 HE WAS MADE AN HONORARY CITIZEN
OF THE FRENCH REPUBLIC IN 1792, AND
PUBLISHED COPIOUSLY ON PENAL AND
SOCIAL REFORM, ECONOMICS, AND
POLITICS. HE ALSO FOUNDED THE
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE IN LONDON,
WHERE HIS CLOTHED SKELETON IS
PRESERVED ON PUBLIC VIEW.
JOHN STUART MILL’S SHORT
BIOGRAPHY

MILL WAS BORN ON RODNEY STREET

IN THE PENTONVILLE AREA OF LONDON.
HE IS THE ELDEST SON OF THE SCOTTISH
PHILOSOPHER, HISTORIAN AND
ECONOMIST JAMES MILL, AND HARRIET
BURROW.
 HE WAS EDUCATED BY HIS FATHER,
WITH THE ADVICE AND ASSISTANCE OF
JEREMY BENTHAM AND FRANCIS PLACE.
 HE WAS GIVEN AN EXTREMELY
RIGOROUS UPBRINGING, AND WAS
DELIBERATELY SHIELDED FROM
ASSOCIATION WITH CHILDREN OF
HIS OWN AGE OTHER THAN HIS
SIBLINGS.
 MILL WAS A BRITISH PHILOSOPHER
AND CIVIL SERVANT. HE IS AN
INFLUENTIAL CONTRIBUTOR TO SOCIAL
THEORY, POLITICAL THEORY, AND
POLITICAL ECONOMY. HIS CONCEPTION
OF LIBERTY JUSTIFIED THE FREEDOM OF
THE INDIVIDUAL IN OPPOSITION TO
UNLIMITED STATE CONTROL.
 HE WAS A PROPONENT OF
UTILITARIANISM, AN ETHICAL
THEORY DEVELOPED BY JEREMY
BENTHAM, ALTHOUGH HIS
CONCEPTION OF IT WAS VERY
DIFFERENT WITH THAT OF JEREMY
BENTHAM.
 HOPING TO REMEDY THE PROBLEMS
FOUND IN AN INDUCTIVE APPROACH TO
SCIENCE, SUCH AS CONFIRMATION BIAS,
HE CLEARLY SET FORTH THE PREMISES
OF FALSIFICATION AS THE KEY
COMPONENT IN THE SCIENTIFIC
METHOD.
 MILL ARGUES THAT DESPOTISM IS
AN ACCEPTABLE FORM OF
GOVERNMENT FOR THOSE SOCIETIES
THAT ARE BACKWARD AS LONG AS
THE DESPOT HAS THE BEST INTERESTS
OF THE PEOPLE AT HEART, BECAUSE
OF THE BARRIERS TO SPONTANEOUS
PROGRESS.
 HE BELIEVED THAT THE STRUGGLE
BETWEEN LIBERTY AND AUTHORITY IS
THE MOST CONSPICUOUS FEATURE IN
THE PORTIONS OF HISTORY. FOR HIM,
LIBERTY IN ANTIQUITY WAS A
CONTEST BETWEEN SUBJECTS OR
SOME CLASSES OF SUBJECTS, AND THE
GOVERNMENT.
 MILL DEFINED SOCIAL LIBERTY AS
PROTECTION FROM THE TYRANNY OF
POLITICAL RULERS. HE INTRODUCES
A NUMBER OF DIFFERENT TYRANNIES,
INCLUDING SOCIAL TYRANNY, AND
ALSO THE TYRANNY OF THE
MAJORITY.
 SOCIAL LIBERTY FOR MILL WAS
TO PUT LIMITS ON THE RULER’S
POWER SO THAT HE WOULD NOT BE
ABLE TO USE HIS POWER ON HIS
OWN WISHES AND MAKE EVERY
KIND OF DECISION WHICH COULD
HARM SOCIETY. IN OTHER WORDS,
PEOPLE SHOULD HAVE THE RIGHT
TO HAVE A SAY IN THE
GOVERNMENT’S DECISIONS.
 HE ARGUED THAT SOCIAL LIBERTY
WAS THE NATURE AND LIMITS OF THE
POWER WHICH CAN BE
LEGITIMATELY EXERCISED BY
SOCIETY OVER THE INDIVIDUAL. IT
WAS ATTEMPTED IN TWO WAYS:
 BY OBTAINING RECOGNITION OF
CERTAIN IMMUNITIES CALLED
POLITICAL LIBERTIES OR RIGHTS.

 BY ESTABLISHMENT OF A SYSTEM
OF CONSTITUTIONAL CHECKS.
THE CONCEPT OF UTILITARIANISM

UTILITARIANISM IS THE IDEA

THAT THE MORAL WORTH OF AN
ACTION IS DETERMINED SOLELY BY
ITS USEFULNESS IN MAXIMIZING
UTILITY AND MINIMIZING NEGATIVE
UTILITY AS SUMMED AMONG ALL
SENTIENT BEINGS.
 IT IS THUS A FORM OF
CONSEQUENTIALISM, MEANING
THAT THE MORAL WORTH OF AN
ACTION IS DETERMINED BY ITS
OUTCOME. IT WAS DESCRIBED BY
JEREMY BENTHAM AS THE
GREATEST HAPPINESS OR GREATEST
FELICITY PRINCIPLE.
 UTILITY, THE GOOD TO BE
MAXIMIZED, HAS BEEN DEFINED BY
VARIOUS THINKERS AS HAPPINESS OR
PLEASURE, ALTHOUGH PREFERENCE
UTILITARIAN DEFINES IT AS THE
SATISFACTION OF PREFERENCES. IT
MAY BE DESCRIBED AS A LIFE STANCE,
WITH HAPPINESS OR PLEASURE
BEIN.G OF ULTIMATE IMPORTANCE.
 UTILITARIANISM CAN BE
CHARACTERIZED AS A QUANTITATIVE
AND REDUCTIONIST APPROACH TO
ETHICS. IT CAN BE CONTRASTED WITH
DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS WHICH DO
NOT REGARD THE CONSEQUENCES OF
AN ACT AS A DETERMINANT OF ITS
MORAL WORTH, AND VIRTUE ETHICS
WHICH FOCUSES ON CHARACTER.
 BENTHAM'S UTILITARIANISM IS
PRIMARILY ABSOLUTIST, EVEN
THOUGH IT IS MUCH MORE FREE THAN
THEORIES SUCH AS THOSE PUT
FORWARD BY IMMANUEL KANT. THIS
MEANS THAT ALL ACTS REQUIRE A
DEFINITE RULES AND CODES AS TO
WHAT THE PERSON MUST DO IN EACH
SITUATION TO BENEFIT THE MOST
PEOPLE.
 WHILE, MILL'S RULE
UTILITARIANISM IS MUCH MORE
RELATIVE IN THAT HE ENCOURAGES
PEOPLE TO DO ACTS THAT ARE
PLEASURABLE TO THEMSELVES AS
LONG AS THEY ARE WHAT HE CALLS
A HIGHER PLEASURE.
 AN ACT UTILITARIANISM STATES
THAT WHEN FACED WITH A CHOICE,
WE MUST FIRST CONSIDER THE
LIKELY CONSEQUENCES OF
POTENTIAL ACTIONS AND, FROM
THAT, CHOOSE TO DO WHAT WE
BELIEVE WILL GENERATE THE MOST
PLEASURE.
 THE RULE UTILITARIAN, ON THE
OTHER HAND, BEGINS BY LOOKING
AT POTENTIAL RULES OF ACTION.
THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN ACT AND
RULE UTILITARIANISM IS THEREFORE
BASED ON A DIFFERENCE ABOUT THE
PROPER OBJECT OF
CONSEQUENTIALIST CALCULATION -
SPECIFIC TO A CASE OR
GENERALIZED TO RULES.
 IT HAS BEEN ARGUED THAT RULE
UTILITARIANISM COLLAPSES INTO
ACT UTILITARIANISM, BECAUSE FOR
ANY GIVEN RULE, IN THE CASE
WHERE BREAKING THE RULE
PRODUCES MORE UTILITY, THE RULE
CAN BE SOPHISTICATED BY THE
ADDITION OF A SUB-RULE THAT
HANDLES CASES LIKE THE
EXCEPTION.
 THIS PROCESS HOLDS FOR ALL
CASES OF EXCEPTIONS, AND SO THE
RULES HAVE AS MANY SUB-RULES AS
THERE ARE EXCEPTIONAL CASES,
WHICH IN THE END, MAKES AN AGENT
SEEK OUT WHATEVER OUTCOME
PRODUCES THE MAXIMUM UTILITY.
MODULE 5: LESSON 1

JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS

JUSTICE

IT IS DEFINE AS A MAINTENANCE OR
ADMINISTRATION OF WHAT IS JUST
ESPECIALLY BY THE IMPARTIAL
ADJUSTMENT OF CONFLICTING CLAIMS
OR THE ASSIGNMENT OF MERITED
REWARDS OR PUNISHMENTS. IT IS ALSO
AN ACTION IN COMPLIANCE WITH THE
CONDITIONS PRESCRIBED BY LAW.
 THE TYPES OF JUSTICE

 COMMUTATIVE JUSTICE
 DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE
 LEGAL JUSTICE
 SOCIAL JUSTICE
COMMUTATIVE JUSTICE

IT IS A TYPE OF JUSTICE THAT

CONTROLS AND HARMONIZES THE
EXERCISE OF RIGHTS BETWEEN MEN
TO HIS FELLOW MAN. IT COVERS
PRIVATE PERSONS AS WELL AS
JURIDICAL PERSONS TO RENDER EACH
OTHER ACCORDING TO THE PRINCIPLE
OF RECIPROCITY.
 COMMUTATIVE JUSTICE CALLS FOR
FUNDAMENTAL FAIRNESS IN ALL
AGREEMENTS AND EXCHANGES
BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS OR PRIVATE
SOCIAL GROUPS. IT DEMANDS
RESPECT FOR THE EQUAL HUMAN
DIGNITY OF ALL PERSONS IN
ECONOMIC TRANSACTIONS,
CONTRACTS, OR PROMISES.
DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

IT IS A TYPE OF JUSTICE THAT

REGULATES THE EXERCISE OF RIGHTS
BETWEEN THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE
COMMUNITY. THE OBJECTIVE END OF
THIS FORM OF JUSTICE IS THE PRIVATE
OR PARTICULAR GOOD OF EACH
MEMBER OF THE COMMUNITY.
LEGAL JUSTICE

IT IS A TYPE OF JUSTICE THAT

REGULATES THE EXERCISE OF
RIGHTS BETWEEN THE COMMUNITY
AND THE AUTHORITY CHARGED
WITH THE GENERAL WELFARE OF
THE COMMUNITY. THE OBJECTIVE
PURPOSE OF LEGAL JUSTICE IS THE
COMMON GOOD.
 LEGAL JUSTICE AND DISTRIBUTIVE
JUSTICE COMPLIMENTS EACH
OTHER. IN THE MEASURE IN WHICH
THE INDIVIDUAL DEVOTES HIS
POWERS AND RESOURCES TO THE
COMMON WELFARE, THE
COMMUNITY MUST SHOW ITS
CONCERNS FOR HIS PARTICULAR
WELFARE.
SOCIAL JUSTICE

IT IS A TYPE OF JUSTICE THAT

PRESUPPOSES COMMUTATIVE
JUSTICE AS A CONDITION. BUT IT
GOES BEYOND THE REQUIREMENTS
OF COMMUTATIVE JUSTICE. ITS
OBJECTIVE PURPOSE IS THE COMMON
GOOD,
 THE MODEL OF SOCIAL JUSTICE IS
THE SOLIDLY UNITED FAMILY WHERE
THE COMMON INTEREST PREVAILS
AND WHERE IT IS SELF-EVIDENT THAT
THE WEAKER MEMBERS HAVE JUST
CLAIM ON THE STRONGER ONES AND
ON THE SOLIDARITY OF ALL.
 IN TERMS OF THE POLITICAL
STABILITY OF A GIVEN TERRITORY,
THE STATE HAS THE DUTY TO
SAFEGUARD EVERY MEMBER OF THE
COMMUNITY, LIFE, SUSTENANCE,
AND THE OPPORTUNITY OF WORK.
 ON THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL,
SOCIAL JUSTICE IMPOSES THE
OBLIGATION TO ASSIST THOSE IN
NEED SO THAT THEY TOO ARE ABLE
TO LIVE IN THE MANNER WORTHY OF
THEIR DIGNITY AS A PERSON.
COMMON GOOD

IN PHILOSOPHY ECONOMICS,
AND POLITICAL SCIENCE, IT REFERS
TO EITHER WHAT IS SHARED AND
BENEFICIAL FOR ALL MEMBERS OF A
GIVEN ENTITY.
 ONE UNDERSTANDING OF THE
COMMON GOOD ROOTED IN
ARISTOTLE'S PHILOSOPHY REMAINS IN
COMMON USAGE TODAY, REFERRING TO
WHAT ONE CONTEMPORARY SCHOLAR
CALLS THE GOOD PROPER TO, AND
ATTAINABLE ONLY BY THE
COMMUNITY, YET INDIVIDUALLY
SHARED BY ITS MEMBERS AND THE
STATE.
 In contemporary economic
theory, a common good is any good which is
rivalrous yet non-excludable,
while the common good arises in the subfield
of welfare economics refers to the outcome of
a social welfare function.
SOCIAL CHOICE THEORY 

IT AIMS TO UNDERSTAND
PROCESSES BY WHICH THE COMMON
GOOD MAY OR MAY NOT BE
REALIZED IN SOCIETIES THROUGH
THE STUDY OF COLLECTIVE
DECISION RULES.
• 
PUBLIC CHOICE THEORY 

IT APPLIES MICRO-ECONOMIC
METHODOLOGY TO THE STUDY OF
POLITICAL SCIENCE IN ORDER TO
EXPLAIN HOW PRIVATE INTERESTS
AFFECT POLITICAL ACTIVITIES AND
OUTCOMES.
• 
 JOHN RAWL DEFINES THE COMMON
GOOD AS CERTAIN GENERAL
CONDITIONS THAT ARE GIVEN
EQUALLY TO EVERYONE'S
ADVANTAGE.
JOHN RAWLS THEORY OF JUSTICE

HE ARGUES FOR A PRINCIPLED

RECONCILIATION OF LIBERTY AND
EQUALITY, APPLIED TO THE BASIC
STRUCTURE OF A WELL-ORDERED
SOCIETY, WHICH WILL SPECIFY
EXACTLY SUCH GENERAL
CONDITIONS.
 RAWLS CLAIMS THAT THE PARTIES
IN THE ORIGINAL POSITION WOULD
ADOPT TWO GOVERNING
PRINCIPLES, WHICH WOULD THEN
REGULATE THE ASSIGNMENT OF
RIGHTS AND DUTIES AND REGULATE
THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC ADVANTAGES ACROSS
SOCIETY.
 THE FIRST PRINCIPLE OF
JUSTICE STATES THAT EACH PERSON
IS TO HAVE AN EQUAL RIGHT TO THE
MOST EXTENSIVE BASIC LIBERTY
COMPATIBLE WITH A SIMILAR
LIBERTY FOR OTHERS.
 THE SECOND PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE
 PROVIDES THAT SOCIAL AND
ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES ARE TO BE
ARRANGED SUCH THAT;
 A. THEY ARE TO BE OF THE
GREATEST BENEFIT TO THE LEAST-
ADVANTAGED MEMBERS OF SOCIETY,
CONSISTENT WITH THE JUST SAVINGS
PRINCIPLE; AND
 B. OFFICES AND POSITIONS MUST
BE OPEN TO EVERYONE UNDER
CONDITIONS OF FAIR EQUALITY OF
OPPORTUNITY.
IN NON-WESTERN MORAL AND
POLITICAL THOUGHT

THE IDEA OF A COMMON GOOD

PLAYS A ROLE IN CONFUCIAN
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, WHICH
STRESSES THE IMPORTANCE OF THE
SUBORDINATION OF INDIVIDUAL
INTERESTS TO GROUP OR COLLECTIVE
INTERESTS, OR THE MUTUAL
DEPENDENCE BETWEEN THE
FLOURISHING OF THE INDIVIDUAL AND
 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF
COMMON GOOD

 RESPECT FOR THE PERSON

 THE SOCIAL WELL-BEING AND
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GROUP
 PEACE AND SECURITY
EGALITARIAN CONCEPT

IT IS A TREND OF THOUGHT IN
POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY. AN
EGALITARIAN FAVORS EQUALITY OF
SOME SORT: PEOPLE SHOULD GET
THE SAME, OR BE TREATED THE
SAME, OR BE TREATED AS EQUALS,
IN SOME RESPECT.
 EGALITARIAN DOCTRINES TEND
TO REST ON A BACKGROUND IDEA
THAT ALL HUMAN PERSONS ARE
EQUAL IN FUNDAMENTAL WORTH OR
MORAL STATUS.
 SO FAR AS THE WESTERN
EUROPEAN AND ANGLO-AMERICAN
PHILOSOPHICAL TRADITION IS
CONCERNED, ONE SIGNIFICANT
SOURCE OF THIS THOUGHT IS THE
CHRISTIAN NOTION THAT GOD
LOVES ALL HUMAN SOULS EQUALLY.
 IN MODERN DEMOCRATIC
SOCIETIES, THE TERM EGALITARIAN
IS OFTEN USED TO REFER TO A
POSITION THAT FAVORS, FOR ANY OF
A WIDE ARRAY OF REASONS, A
GREATER DEGREE OF EQUALITY OF
INCOME AND WEALTH ACROSS
PERSONS THAT CURRENTLY EXISTS.
 MODULE 4: LESSON 3

IMMANUEL KANT AND RIGHTS THEORISTS

IMMANUEL KANT’S SHORT BIOGRAPHY

KANT WAS BORN IN 1724 IN

KONIGSBERG, THE CAPITAL OF PRUSIA AT
THAT TIME, NOW THE CITY OF
KALININGRAD IN RUSSIA. HE WAS THE
FOURTH OF ELEVEN CHILDREN. HE WAS
BAPTIZED EMMANUEL, BUT HE
CHANGED HIS NAME TO IMMANUEL
AFTER LEARNING HEBREW.
 HIS FATHER, JOHANN GEORGE KANT,
WAS A GERMAN HARNESS-MAKER FROM
MEMEL WHILE HIS MOTHER, REGINA
DOROTHEA REUTER, WAS A NATIVE OF
NUREMBERG.
 DURING HIS YOUTH, KANT WAS A
SOLID, ALBEIT UNSPECTACULAR
STUDENT. HE WAS REARED IN A PIETIST
HOUSEHOLD THAT STRESSED INTENSE
RELIGIOUS DEVOTION, PERSONAL
HUMILITY, AND A LITERAL
INTERPRETATION OF THE BIBLE.
 KANT RECEIVED A STERN
EDUCATION – STRICT, PUNITIVE, AND
DISCIPLINARY – THAT PREFERRED LATIN
AND RELIGIOUS INSTRUCTION OVER
MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE.
 HE WAS THE LAST INFLUENTIAL
PHILOSOPHER OF THE CLASSIC PERIOD
OF THE THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE. ONE
OF HIS MOST PROMINENT WORKS IS THE
CRITIQUE OF PURE REASON, AN
INVESTIGATION INTO THE STRUCTURE
OF REASON.
 IT SUGGESTS THAT TRADITIONAL
METAPHYSICS CAN BE REFORMED
THROUGH EPISTEMOLOGY, AS WE CAN
FACE METAPHYSICAL PROBLEMS
FRUITFULLY BY UNDERSTANDING THE
SOURCES AND LIMITS OF KNOWLEDGE.
 ONE OF HIS MOST INFLUENTIAL WORK
IS HIS TREATISE ON GRAVITATION, IN
WHICH HE ARGUED THAT ATTRACTIVE
FORCES COULD ACT AT A DISTANCE
WITHOUT THE NECESSITY OF A
TRANSMITTING MEDIUM.
 HE ALSO SUGGESTED CORRECTLY
THAT THE MILKY WAY WAS A LENS-
SHAPED COLLECTION OF STARS AND
THAT TIDAL FRICTION SLOWS EARTH'S
ROTATION. LESS WISELY, HE WAS
CONVINCED THAT THE PLANETS WERE
POPULATED, WITH THE MOST SUPERIOR
INTELLECTS ON PLANETS MOST
DISTANT FROM THE SUN.
 KANT INTRODUCED THE PRINCIPLES
OF CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE INTO
ETHICS IN ORDER TO DISTINGUISH
THE OVERRIDING OBJECTIVE FORCE
OF MORAL INJUNCTIONS FROM THE
HYPOTHETICAL IMPERATIVES OF
OTHER PRESCRIPTIONS.
 HE FORMULATED THE PRINCIPLE AS
ACT SO THAT YOU CAN WILL THE
PRINCIPLE OF YOUR ACTION TO
BECOME A UNIVERSAL LAW OR ACT
SO THAT YOU TREAT HUMANITY AS AN
END, NEVER MERELY A MEANS.
 ACCORDING TO IMMANUEL
KANT, MAN IS A RATIONAL BEING.
EVERY ACTION OF MAN MUST BE IN
ACCORDANCE WITH LAWS OF
REASON THAT MAKES MAN A
MORAL AGENT. IT IS THE DUTY OF
MAN TO LIVE A MORAL LIFE.
 KANT FULLY ESTABLISHED THE
INDEPENDENCE OF HIS ETHICS
FROM RELIGION VIA THE
RECOGNITION OF REASON AS THE
FOUNDATION, GOODWILL AS THE
SOURCE, AND DUTY AS THE
MOTIVATION OF WHAT OBLIGES
THE HUMAN PERSON.
 ACCORDING TO IMMANUEL KANT,
THE MORAL AUTHORITY IS
IMMINENT IN EVERY MAN, THAT IS
THE ORIGIN OF ETHICAL
OBLIGATIONS FOR MAN IS HIS/HER
OWN GOODWILL.
THE SUBSTANCE OF RIGHTS

THERE ARE TWO IDENTIFIED

SUBSTANCES OF RIGHTS, NAMELY:
THE SUBJECT, AND THE OBJECT.
 THE SUBJECT REFER TO THE
PERSON ENDOWED WITH THE RIGHT
TO DO. WHILE THE OBJECT REFER TO
SOMETHING ON WHICH THE SUBJECT
HAS THE MORAL RIGHT.
THE ORIGIN OF RIGHTS

THE RIGHT ORIGINATES NOT FROM

THE PERSON HOLDING IT. MAN HAS
RIGHT BECAUSE LAW PROVIDES HIM
THIS. LAW PROVIDES MAN THE POWER
TO DO, TO EXPRESS, TO ACT, TO
RECEIVE ETC. WITHOUT LAW MAN
HAS NO RIGHT.
 LAW EXTENDS AND LIMITS THE
RIGHT OF MAN. IT IS ALWAYS THE
LAW THAT MATTERS AND NOT THE
MAN WHO IS TRUSTED BY LAW TO
PERFORM HIS RIGHT SO AS THEY SAY
NO ONE IS ABOVE THE LAW.
 NOW, WHAT IS THIS LAW THAT
GIVES MAN THE POWER TO DO? IT
CAN BE A NATURAL LAW AND THE
HUMAN LAW THAT IS CIVIL AND
ECCLESIASTICAL. CIVIL LAW, THE
LAWS ENACTED BY CONGRESS;
ECCLESIASTICAL, THE LAWS THAT
GOVERNS THE CHURCH.
 Types of Rights

 Alienable Rights
 NATURAL RIGHTS
 Inalienable Rights
 ACQUIRED RIGHTS
 Perfect Rights
 PUBLIC RIGHTS
 Imperfect Rights
 PRIVATE RIGHTS
 POSITIVE RIGHTS
 NEGATIVE RIGHTS
NATURAL RIGHTS

THEY ARE ALSO CALLED BASIC

HUMAN RIGHTS THAT INCLUDES;
RIGHT TO LIFE, TO FREEDOM, TO
OBTAIN PROPERTIES, TO EDUCATION.
THOSE ARE THE RIGHTS ENDORSED
BY MAN IN HIS/HER BIRTH.
ACQUIRED RIGHTS

THOSE RIGHTS OBTAINED BY

INDIVIDUALS AFTER FULFILLING
SOME REQUIREMENTS AS
PRESCRIBED BY LAW.
PUBLIC RIGHTS

IT REFERS TO THE RIGHTS GIVEN

TO THE PEOPLE BY THE
ECCLESIASTICAL LAWS AND CIVIL
LAWS.
PRIVATE RIGHTS

IT REFERS TO THE RIGHTS OF THE

PERSON PROVIDED BY THE LAW OF
THE FIRMS, INSTITUTION OR
ORGANIZATIONS FORMULATED
UNDER THE CIVIL LAW
PARTICULARLY THE CONSTITUTION
OF THE COUNTRY.
POSITIVE RIGHTS

THESE ARE NOT CONFINED TO A

PERSON. AS AN EXAMPLE ANYBODY
HAS THE RIGHT TO OWN OR NOT TO
OWN A PROPERTY.
NEGATIVE RIGHTS

THESE ARE POWER OF THE

PERSONS TO REFUSE TO PERFORM
NEGATIVE ACTS SUCH AS; STEALING,
INTOXICATION, DRINKING, KILLING,
AND SO ON.
ALIENABLE RIGHTS

THESE ARE TRANSFERRABLE OR

RENOUNCEABLE RIGHTS. POSITIVE
RIGHTS AND NEGATIVE RIGHTS FALL
UNDER THIS CLASSIFICATION OF
RIGHTS.
INALIENABLE RIGHTS

THESE ARE POWERS THET

CANNOT BE TRANSFERRED OR
RENOUNCED. EXAMPLE ARE
RELIGIOUS RIGHTS OR RIGHTS TO
LIFE.
PERFECT RIGHTS

THESE ARE MANDATORY OR

ENFORCEABLE BY LAW. AS
ILLUSTRATION, ANYONE HAS THE
RIGHT TO COLLECT PAYMENT OF
DEBT. THE RIGHTS OF ANYBODY TO
HELP THE POOR, OR VICTIMS OF
CALAMITIES.
IMPERFECT RIGHTS

THESE ARE DIFFERENT FROM THE

PERFECT ONES. THEY ARE NOT
JUDICIAL OR NOT ENFORCEABLE BY
LAW. EXAMPLE IS THE RIGHT TO
GIVE A TIP TO THE HOTEL USHERS.
PROPERTIES OF RIGHTS

RIGHTS HAVE THREE PROPERTIES,

NAMELY; LIMITATION, COLLISION, AND
INVIOLABILITY. LAW PROVIDES RIGHTS;
IT IS ALSO LAW THAT LIMITS RIGHTS.
RIGHTS ARE LIMITED TO AVOID
VIOLATION OF OTHER’S RIGHT AND THIS
LIMITATION MUST BE PROPERLY
OBSERVED.
 MODULE 5: LESSON 2

THE ORDER OF RELIGION IN ETHICS

 RELIGION IS A SOCIAL-CULTURAL
SYSTEM OF
DESIGNATED BEHAVIORS AND
PRACTICES THAT RELATES
HUMANITY TO SUPERNATURAL,
TRANSCENDENTAL, OR SPIRITUAL
ELEMENTS.
 DIFFERENT RELIGIONS CONTAIN
VARIOUS ELEMENTS RANGING FROM
THE DIVINE, SACRED THINGS,
FAITH, SUPERNATURAL BEINGS OR
SOME SORT OF ULTIMACY AND
TRANSCENDENCE THAT WILL
PROVIDE NORMS AND POWER FOR
THE REST OF LIFE.
 THE STUDY OF RELIGION
ENCOMPASSES A WIDE VARIETY OF
ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES INCLUDING
THEOLOGY, COMPARATIVE RELIGION,
AND SOCIAL SCIENTIFIC STUDIES. 
 THEORIES OF RELIGION OFFER
VARIOUS EXPLANATIONS FOR THE
ORIGINS AND WORKINGS OF
RELIGION, INCLUDING THE
ONTOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
RELIGIOUS BEING AND BELIEF.
 IN MOST ETHICS COURSES,
INCLUDING THIS ONE, THERE IS
HEAVY EMPHASIS ON THE
TRADITIONS OF THE WEST TO TRAIN
STUDENTS TO THINK ABOUT THE
ETHICAL WAY OF EXISTENCE.
 HOWEVER, THERE IS ANOTHER
TRADITION OF THINKING ABOUT THE
GOOD THAT IS WORTH CONSIDERING
FOR A FULLER UNDERSTANDING OF
HOW PEOPLE ORIENT THEIR LIVES
TO THE GOOD. THIS TRADITIONS
COMES FROM THE GREAT
CIVILIZATIONS OF THE EAST
PARTICULARLY FROM INDIA AND
CHINA.
 IT WOULD BE PROFITABLE TO
STUDY THESE TRADITIONS BECAUSE
THEY ARE CLOSER TO ASIAN MORAL
SENSIBILITIES AND HAVE SHAPED
THEM. THESE ASIAN TRADITIONS
SHARE SOME GENERAL
CHARACTERISTICS.
 THERE ARE SIX IDENTIFIED
COMMON THEMES WHICH CAN BE
DRAWN FROM THE GREAT ASIAN
SPIRITUAL AND INTELLECTUAL
TRADITIONS.
FIRST THEME

ONE CAN IMMEDIATELY NOTICE

THAT RELIGIOUS THOUGHT IS
INTERTWINED WITH PHILOSOPHICAL
AND ETHICAL THINKING. THERE IS
NO REAL SEPARATION OF BELIEFS
ABOUT THE TRANSCENDENT AND
THE COSMOS, INCLUDING THE
TRADITIONAL MYTHICAL BELIEF.
SECOND THEME

THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS THAT

BINDS THE INTELLECTUAL
TRADITIONS IS LOVE AND
COMPASSION.
THIRD THEME

THE CORRECTEDNESS OF
PERSONAL CULTIVATION AND SOCIAL
RESPONSIBILITY.
FOURTH THEME

EACH OF THE GREAT ASIAN

TRADITIONS, MORE OR LESS,
OUTLINES A PATH TO
ENLIGHTENMENT.
FIFTH THEME

THESE TRADITIONS GIVES HUMAN

BEINGS A PATH TO AWARANESS OF
THE TRUE ORDER OF ALL THINGS.
SIXTH THEME

THESE GREAT TEACHINGS OFFER

PATHS OF HARMONY WITH ONESELF,
WITH OTHERS, WITH NATURE, AND
WITH THE TRANSCENDENT.
BUDDHISM

ONE OF THE WELL KNOWN

RELIGION OF EASTERN AND
CENTRAL ASIA GROWING OUT OF THE
TEACHING OF SIDDHARTA GAUTAMA.
 THE BASIC DOCTRINES OF EARLY
BUDDHISM, WHICH REMAIN
COMMON TO ALL BUDDHISM,
INCLUDE THE  FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS:
 EXISTENCE OF SUFFERING (DUKHKA)
 SUFFERING IS CAUSE BY CRAVING AND
ATTACHMENT (TRISHNA)
 THERE IS A CESSATION OF SUFFERING
 SUFFERING CAN BE ELIMINATED
THROUGH THE EIGHTFOLD PATH
 THE  EIGHTFOLD PATH

 RIGHT VIEWS
 RIGHT SPEECH
 RIGHT ACTION
 RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
 RIGHT LIVELIHOOD
 RIGHT EFFORT
 RIGHT MINDFULNESS
 RIGHT CONCENTRATION
 EXPERIENCE IS ANALYZED INTO
FIVE AGGREGATES, NAMELY: THE
FIRST, FORM (RUPA), REFERS TO
MATERIAL EXISTENCE; THE
FOLLOWING FOUR, SENSATIONS
(VEDANA), PERCEPTIONS (SAMJNA),
PSYCHIC CONSTRUCTS (SAMKARA),
AND CONSCIOUSNESS (VIJNANA).
 THE CENTRAL BUDDHIST
TEACHING OF NON-SELF (ANATMAN)
ASSERTS THAT IN THE FIVE
AGGREGATES NO INDEPENDENTLY
EXISTENT, IMMUTABLE SELF, OR
SOUL, CAN BE FOUND.
 BUDDHISM ACCEPTS THE PAN-
INDIAN PRESUPPOSITION OF
SAMSARA, OR REBIRTH PROVIDED BY
ONE'S PREVIOUS PHYSICAL AND
MENTAL ACTIONS. THE RELEASE
FROM THIS CYCLE OF REBIRTH AND
SUFFERING IS THE TOTAL
TRANSCENDENCE CALLED NIRVANA.
 HINDUISM IS THE WORLD’S
OLDEST EXISTING RELIGION. IT
EMBRACES MANY RELIGIOUS IDEAS.
FOR THIS REASON, IT’S SOMETIMES
REFERRED TO AS A WAY OF LIFE OR A
FAMILY OF RELIGIONS, AS OPPOSED
TO A SINGLE, ORGANIZED RELIGION.
 MOST FORMS OF HINDUISM ARE
HENOTHEISTIC, WHICH MEANS THEY
WORSHIP A SINGLE DEITY, KNOWN AS
BRAHMAN, BUT STILL RECOGNIZE
OTHER GODS AND GODDESSES.
FOLLOWERS BELIEVE THERE ARE
MULTIPLE PATHS TO REACHING THEIR
GOD.
 HINDUS BELIEVE IN THE
DOCTRINES OF SAMSARA - THE
CONTINUOUS CYCLE OF LIFE, DEATH,
AND REINCARNATION, AND KARMA -
THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF CAUSE AND
EFFECT.
 ONE OF THE KEY THOUGHTS OF
HINDUISM IS ATMAN, OR THE BELIEF
IN SOUL. THIS PHILOSOPHY HOLDS
THAT LIVING CREATURES HAVE A
SOUL, AND THEY’RE ALL PART OF THE
SUPREME SOUL.
 THE GOAL IS TO ACHIEVE MOKSHA,
OR SALVATION, WHICH ENDS THE
CYCLE OF REBIRTHS TO BECOME
PART OF THE ABSOLUTE SOUL.
 ONE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF
THE RELIGION IS THE IDEA THAT
PEOPLE’S ACTIONS AND THOUGHTS
DIRECTLY DETERMINE THEIR
CURRENT LIFE AND FUTURE LIVES.
 HINDUS STRIVE TO ACHIEVE
DHARMA, WHICH IS A CODE OF LIVING
THAT EMPHASIZES GOOD CONDUCT
AND MORALITY.
 THE PRIMARY SACRED TEXTS,
KNOWN AS THE VEDAS, WERE
COMPOSED AROUND 1500 B.C. THE
VEDAS ARE MADE UP OF:

 THE RIG VEDA

 THE SAMAVEDA
 YAJURVEDA
 ATHARVAVEDA
 HINDUS BELIEVE THAT THE VEDAS
TRANSCEND ALL TIME AND DON’T
HAVE A BEGINNING OR AN END. THE
UPANISHADS, THE BHAGAVAD GITA,
PURANAS, RAMAYANA AND
MAHABHARATA ARE ALSO
CONSIDERED IMPORTANT TEXTS IN
HINDUISM.
CONFUCIANISM

IT IS OFTEN CHARACTERIZED AS A
SYSTEM OF SOCIAL AND ETHICAL
PHILOSOPHY RATHER THAN A
RELIGION.
 IN FACT, IT WAS BUILT ON AN
ANCIENT RELIGIOUS FOUNDATION TO
ESTABLISH THE SOCIAL VALUES,
INSTITUTIONS, AND TRANSCENDENT
IDEALS OF TRADITIONAL CHINESE
SOCIETY
 IT IS WAS CALLED A CIVIL
RELIGION BECAUSE OF IT’S SENSE OF
RELIGIOUS IDENTITY AND COMMON
MORAL UNDERSTANDING AT THE
FOUNDATION OF A SOCIETY'S
CENTRAL INSTITUTIONS.
 IT IS ALSO CALLED A DIFFUSED
RELIGION BECAUSE ITS
INSTITUTIONS WERE NOT A SEPARATE
CHURCH, BUT THOSE OF SOCIETY,
FAMILY, SCHOOL, AND STATE; ITS
PRIESTS WERE NOT SEPARATE
LITURGICAL SPECIALISTS, BUT
PARENTS, TEACHERS, AND OFFICIALS.
 CONFUCIANISM WAS PART OF THE
CHINESE SOCIAL FABRIC AND WAY OF
LIFE; TO CONFUCIANS, EVERYDAY
LIFE WAS THE ARENA OF RELIGION.
 ONE SIDE OF CONFUCIANISM WAS
THE AFFIRMATION OF ACCEPTED
VALUES AND NORMS OF BEHAVIOR IN
PRIMARY SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND
BASIC HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS. ALL
HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS INVOLVED A
SET OF DEFINED ROLES AND MUTUAL
OBLIGATIONS.
 CONFUCIUS NOT ONLY STRESSED
SOCIAL RITUALS, BUT ALSO
HUMANENESS (REN). REN,
SOMETIMES TRANSLATED LOVE OR
KINDNESS, IS NOT ANY ONE VIRTUE,
BUT THE SOURCE OF ALL VIRTUES.
 CONFUCIUS TAUGHT THAT
HUMANITY EXISTS IN AN INTER-
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HEAVEN
AND EARTH. HEAVEN IS SEEN AS THE
GUIDING FORCE, GIVING DIRECTION
TO CHANGE AND PROGRESS, WHILE
EARTH PROVIDES THE NATURAL
CONTEXT AND SEASONAL CHANGES.
CHRISTIANITY

IT IS A RELIGION THAT IS
PRIMARILY BASED ON THE BIRTH,
LIFE, DEATH, RESURRECTION AND
TEACHING OF JESUS CHRIST.
 THE BEGINNING OF THE CHRISTIAN
RELIGION AND THE CHRISTIAN
CHURCH BEGAN WITH JESUS CHRIST
AND HIS APOSTLES.
 CHRISTIANITY BEGAN IN THE 1ST
CENTURY AD AFTER JESUS DIED, AS
A SMALL GROUP OF JEWISH PEOPLE
IN JUDEA, BUT QUICKLY SPREAD
THROUGHOUT THE ROMAN EMPIRE.
 DESPITE EARLY PERSECUTION OF
CHRISTIANS, IT BECOME THE
LARGEST OF THE WORLD’S
RELIGIONS AND, GEOGRAPHICALLY,
THE MOST WIDELY DIFFUSED OF ALL
FAITHS.
 IT HAS A CONSTITUENCY OF MORE
THAN TWO BILLION BELIEVERS. ITS
LARGEST GROUPS ARE THE ROMAN
CATHOLIC CHURCH, THE EASTERN
ORTHODOX CHURCH, AND
THE PROTESTANT CHURCH.
 AT ITS MOST BASIC, CHRISTIANITY
IS THE FAITH TRADITION THAT
FOCUSES ON THE FIGURE OF JESUS
CHRIST. IN THIS CONTEXT, FAITH
REFERS BOTH TO THE BELIEVERS’
ACT OF TRUST AND TO THE CONTENT
OF THEIR FAITH.
 AS A TRADITION, CHRISTIANITY IS
MORE THAN A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS
BELIEF. IT ALSO HAS GENERATED
A CULTURE, A SET OF IDEAS AND
WAYS OF LIFE, PRACTICES,
AND ARTIFACTS THAT HAVE BEEN
HANDED DOWN FROM GENERATION
TO GENERATION.
GLOBALIZATION

IT IS THE CONNECTION OF

DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD
RESULTING IN THE EXPANSION OF
INTERNATIONAL CULTURAL,
ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL
ACTIVITIES.
 IT IS THE MOVEMENT AND
INTEGRATION OF GOODS AND PEOPLE
AMONG DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.
THERE ARE THREE MAIN
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
GLOBALIZATION, POLITICAL, SOCIAL,
AND ECONOMIC.
POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

IT REFERS TO THE AMOUNT OF

POLITICAL CO-OPERATION THAT
EXISTS BETWEEN DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES.
SOCIAL GLOBALIZATION

IT REFERS TO THE SHARING OF

IDEAS AND INFORMATION BETWEEN
AND THROUGH DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES.
ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION

IT REFERS TO THE INTER-

CONNECTEDNESS OF ECONOMIES
THROUGH TRADE AND THE
EXCHANGE OF RESOURCES.