HEAT

TRANSFER
 Content
• Modes of heat transfer?
• Fourier Law of heat
conduction
• Convective heat coefficient
• Radiant heat coefficient
• Overall heat transfer
coefficient
• Hands-on example
 Temperature
• A measure of energy due to level of heat
– Freezing point of water is 0 ˚ C
– Boiling point of water is 100 ˚ C
Common Temperature Scales
 What is Heat?
Heatis the total internal kinetic energy due to
molecular motion in an object
Quantity of heat is BTU or Kilo Joule (kJ)
• One BTU is the amount of heat required to raise
1 lb of water by 1 ˚ F
• One calorie is required to raise 1 g of water by
1˚ C
1 cal = 4.187 J
• 1 BTU= 1.055 kJ= 1055 J
 Heat Vs Temperature
• Heat energy depends on mass. Temperature
is independent of mass.
– 2 litres of boiling water has more heat energy
than 1 litre of boiling water
• Temperature is not energy, but a measure of it
• Heat is energy
 Heat is Energy
When heat (ie energy) goes into a
substance, one of two things can
happen:
1. Temperature goes up
2. Change of state
 Temperature Goes Up
• Heat that causes a rise in temperature
e.g. heating water before boiling
• The heat energy is used to increase the
kinetic energy of the molecules in the
substance
• This is also known as the sensible heat
 Change Of State
• Heat that brings about a change in potential
energy of the molecules (temperature
remains constant). Also called the latent
heat.
 Specific Heat
• It is the heat required to the temperature of 1
kg (lb) a substance by 1 ˚ K (F)
• Example:
Water’s specific heat is 4.2 kJ/kg K
Air’s specific heat is 1.0 kJ/kg K
Hydrogen’s specific heat is 14.3 kJ/kgK
 Sizing Heating Capacity

Quantityof heat required  mass x specific heat x

T
Example:
How much energy does it take to raise the
temperature of this classroom by 10 degrees?
 Heat Transfer
• If there is a temperature difference in a
system, heat will always move from higher
to lower temperatures

What is actually flowing?

 Conduction
• Heat transfer through a solid medium
via direct contact
• Expressed by Fourier’s Law
 Fourier’s Law

T T
1 2
Q
dT
q" k dx X

k = thermal conductivity (W/ m

K) T = temperature (K)
q” = heat flux (W/m2)

Heat flow rate = q” x

area

(W)
 Fourier’s Law

Assumptions T T
•Steady state heat conduction. 1 2
•One directional heat flow. Q
•Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character that
is constant and uniform temperatures are X
maintained at the two faces.
•Isotropic and homogeneous material
•Constant temperature gradient and linear
temperature profile.
•No internal heat generation.
 Fourier’s law at steady state
( Plane Slab)
q" k dx
dT (Fourier Law)

T T (Steady State)
q" k 2

L
1

T T
q"  L/k
2 1

Heat transfer rate

q
Q  q" x Area of heat
flowT  T
T 2
 1
TL / 2
1
R=L/kA
kA Unit thermal
resistance
Thermal Conductivity (W/m K)
Common Metals Liquids
Copper: 385 Water: 0.556
Aluminum: 221 Ammonia: 0.54
Steel: 50 Gases
Non-metals Air : 0.024
Common brick:0.6
Water vapor: 0.021
Glass: 0.84
Mineral wool:0.04
Ceiling board: 0.06
 Example 1
• Temperature of 35 0 C and 22 0 C are maintained
on opposite sides of a steel floor of 6 mm thick.
Compute the heat flux through the floor.
• **Thermal conductivity for steel = 50 W/m K
 Example 2
• The glass windows of a room have a total area of 10 m2
and the glass is 4 mm thick. Calculate the quantity of
heat that escapes from the room by conduction per
second when the inside surface of windows are at 25 0 C
and the outside surfaces are 100 C.
• **Thermal conductivity for glass = 0.84 W/m K
(Ans: 31.5 kJ/s)
 Electrical- Thermal Analogy
q

T
Electrical (Ohm's Law) T
1
2

R=L/k
Voltage Potential A
Current, I  Re sis tan ce
Thermal

Temperature difference
Heat flux, q 
Re sis tan ce
 Composite Wall

Using the resistance

concept,

 R1 2 T
R1 T 2
q" 
X1
R1  k A
1 1

R R X
1 2
T R 2  k 2A
T 2 2 2
1
Q
 Example 3
A wall of a Switchgear room consists
the following:
6mm 100mm 25mm

TNF panel
k2 k = 0.02 W/m
K
35 q2 22
Q
C C Q
Steel plate
Q Firebatt
k = 50 W/m
k = 0.04 W/m
K
K

Determine Q, if the wall is 3m x

4m ?
Ans: 41.59 J/s
 Convection
• Energy transfer by
fluid motion
• Two kinds of
convection
– Forced convection: Fluid
is forced
– Natural or free
convection: fluid is
induced by temperature
difference
Newton’s Law of Cooling
“The rate of heat loss of a Q α Δ T
body is directly where Δ T = change in temp.
proportional to the
difference in the 
temperatures between
the body and its
surroundings provided
the temperature
difference is small and
the nature of radiating
surface remains same”
 Convective Heat Transfer
y T
Newton's Law of Q
a
cooling air flow

c A(Ts  Ta )
Q h(T s
T
Q
Ta) 1 s

hC A where:
h c is convection coefficient (W/m2C),
1 Ts is surface temperature (C),
Rc  T a is surrounding air temperature (C)
hc A
Rc= Convective resistance.
 Magnitude of Convection Coefficients
Arrangement h, W/m2 K Btu, (h.ft2.F)
Air, free (indoor) 10-30 1-5
Air, 30-300 5-50
forced
(outdoor)
Oil, forced 60-1800 10-300
Water, forced 300-6000 50-1000
Steam, condensing 6000-120000 1000-20000
 Example 4
The same as Example 3. Consider convection
of the exposed surfaces, calculate Q.
6mm 100mm 25mm

TNF panel
k2 k = 0.02 W/m
Air
K
35 q2 22
Q
C C Q
Steel plate
Q Firebatt
k = 50 W/m
k = 0.04 W/m
K
K

Ans: 39.34 kJ/s

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U)
Q
 T1  T2  A
1 L 1 L, k
 
h1 k h2

T1
Comparing with Newton’s Law:
h1
Q  UA T1  T2  T2
h2
Overall Coefficient ,
1
U 
1 L 1
 
h1 k h 2
Example 5
A furnace wall is built with 200 mm thick refractory
bricks and 150mm insulating bricks. The temperature
of the surrounding is 400 C and inside the furnace is
10000 C . The thermal conductivities of the refractory
bricks and insulating bricks are 5 and 0.5 W/mK
respectively. If the coefficients of heat transfer for the
furnace gas and air is 80 and 40 W/m2 K, find the
overall coefficient of heat transfer.
Ans: 2.649 W/m2 K
 Conduction through cylinder
Fouriers dT
law, Q  kA
dR
wher A  2rL
e dr
Q  2kLdT
r
Integrating from ri to ro
 ro 
Q ln     2kL (To  Ti )
 r1 
2kL(Ti  To )
Q
Rearranging,  ro 
ln 
 ri 
 Convection through cylinder
2kL(Ti  To )
Q
r 
ln o 
 ri 
Due to convection between hot fluid and
cylinder wall,
Convective heat transfer,
Q  hA(T1  T2 ), ( general.eqn)
Q  2rLh (Th  Ti )
Due to convection between outer surface and
Q  2rLhc (To  Tc )
cold fluid
Th  Tc
Q
r 
ln o 
1 r 1
  i 
2rLh 2kL 2rLhc
 INSULATION (Critical thickness)
Adding more insulation to a wall
.always decreases heat transfer
since the heat transfer area is
constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal
resistance of the wall without
increasing the convection
resistance.
In a a cylindrical pipe or a spherical
shell, the additional insulation
increases the conduction
resistance of the insulation layer
but decreases the convection An insulated cylindrical pipe exposed to
resistance of the surface because convection from the outer surface and
of the increase in the outer surface the thermal resistance network
area for convection. associated with it.
The heat transfer from the pipe
may increase or decrease,
depending on which effect
dominates. 24
The critical radius of insulation
for a cylindrical body: (dQ/dr = 0 )

The largest value of the critical

radius we are likely to
encounter is

We can insulate hot-water or The variation of heat transfer

steam pipes freely without
worrying about the possibility of
increasing the heat transfer by
insulating the pipes.
rate with the outer radius of the
insulation r2 when r1 < rcr.
25
Example 6
Determine the heat loss from an insulated steel pipe, carrying a hot
liquid, to the surroundings per metre length of the pipe, given the
following design details:
Inner dia of pipe = 10 cm
Wall thickness = 1cm
Thickness of insulation = 3 cm
Temperature of hot liquid = 850 C
Ambient temperature = 250 C
K for steel = 58 W/mK
K for insulator = 0.2 W/mK
h for hot fluid = 720 W/m2 K
h for surrounding air = 9 W/m2 K (Ans: 114.8 W/m)
 Radiation
• Energy emitted by object that is at
any temperature above absolute
zero
• Energy is in the form electromagnetic
waves
• No medium needed and travel at speed
of light Example :
Hot Body Solar radiation
R ad i a t o r
 Radiation
• Important mode of heat at high
temperatures,
e.g. combustion furnace
• At room temperature it may just
be measurable.
• Intensity depends on body temperature
and surface characteristics
 Solar Radiation

• Solar radiation is the radiation emitted by

the sun due to nuclear fusion reaction
• Solar Constant: The amount of solar
energy arriving at the top of the
atmosphere
perpendicular to the sun’s rays.
• = 1375 W m-2
Solar Radiation Spectrum
99% of solar radiation is between 0.3 to 3 µm.
Wien’s Law

2900
m  T m
Wien’s Law
The Black Body

E = AT4

• E =The amount of energy (W

) emitted by an object
•  = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
• T = Temperature (K)
• A= area (m2)
The Grey Body
For an actual body,
E   Eb   A(T ) where
4

  emissitivity
 0.8 - 0.9 for common
materials
 0.02 - 0.07 for polished
metals
 Net Radiant Heat

• If a hot object is radiating to a

cold surrounding, the radiation
loss is

q   A ( T h 4
 Tc
4
)
 Quiz
How much energy does human body
radiate?
• Body temperature is 37 C
• Body area is 1.5 m2
• ε= 0.7
 Radiant Heat Transfer
• Unit thermal resistance for radiation is
a
written
q "  hr (  T )
s
R c 1
 hr

Radiation coefficient is a function of

temperature, radiation properties and
geometrical arrangement of the
enclosure and the body in question.
 Combined convection and radiant
Coefficient
• The heat transfer is combination of
convection and radiation
q "  qc  qr
q "  (hc  hr )( T )
Combined thermal resistance,
1
R 
hc  hr
 Combined Surface Coefficients
• Some practical values of surface
coefficients:
(source: ASHRAE Fundamentals 1989)
Air velocity Emissivity, ε=0.9
3.5 m/s h = 22.7 W/m2 K
7 m/s h = 35 W/m2 K
Still air h = 8.5 W/ m2 K
 Combined modes
Tho
Thot t

Outside
R3=1/hhot

T
T
k2 T 3
3
2
k1
T R2=L1/k1 +
Inside L2/K2 T
1
1

R1=1/hcold

Tcol
d
T
Tcol
Resistance in parallel, R= R1 + R2 d
 Compute
Tho
t
R  R1  R 2 
R3 R3=1/hho
R  1  L1 / L 2  1 t

hcold k 1 k 2 hhot T
q" Thot  Tcold R2=L1/k1 + 2
1/ hhot 1/ hcold  L1 / k1  L 2 / k L2/k2
2
T
T1  Tcold
q" 1

1/ hcold
R1=1/hcold
q" T2  Tcold
 L1 / k 1  L 2 / k
1/ hcold 2
Tcol
d
 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Heat transfer processes includes
conduction, convection and radiation
simultaneously
• The total conduction heat transfer for a wall
or roof is expressed as
Q = A x U x ∆T where
U is the overall heat transfer coefficient (or
U- value)
R  R1  R 2  R 3

 .......
R
1
U 
 Example
• Find the overall heat
transfer coefficient of
a flat roof having the
construction shown
in the figure.
Solution
T
1

R1

R2

R3

R4

R5

R6

T
2
 Solution
Resistance Construction Unit resistance (m2 K/ W)

R1 Outside air

R2 steel

R3 Mineral wool

R4 Air space

R5 Ceiling board

R6 Inside air

Total R
 Solution

Overall heat transfer coefficien

t 1
1
U  R  2.48  0.40 W/m 2
K
Heat Transfer Loop
in a DX System
Heat Exchanger Coil

Heat is exchanged
between 2 fluids.
Q= UA ∆T
For cross flow,
Q= UA
(LMTD)
Heat Exchanger- Mean Temperature
Difference

Heat Transfer, Q  U x Area x LM

TD

GTD-GTD
LTD
Q  U x Area x Ln LTD
 Heat transfer optimization
• We have the following relations for heat transfer:
– Conduction: Q = k A ∆T /d
– Convection: Q = A h c ∆T
– Radiation: Q = A h r ∆T
• As a result, when equipment designers want to
improve heat transfer rates, they focus on:
– Increasing the area A, e.g. by using profiled tubes and
ribbed surfaces.
– Increasing T (which is not always controllable).
– For conduction, increasing k /d.
– Increase h c by not relying on natural convection, but
introducing forced convection.
– Increase hr, by using “black” surfaces.