Yuliana Zakiyah (0203515062)

Ernidawati (0203515098)
• The term ‘code’ can be used to refer to any kind of
system that two or more people employ for
communication (It can actually be used for system used
by a single person, as when someone devises a private
code to protect certain secrets).
History of
Diglossia

4
Diglossia is enduring societal arrangement , and
extending at least beyond a three generation period
such as two language each have their secure
phenomenologically legitimate and widely
implemented functions .

E.g. One language is used in one set of

circumstances and the other entirely different set
and such difference is felt to be normal and
proper.
Fishman gives examples such as Biblical Hebrew
and Yiddish for many Jews, Spanish and Guarani
in Paraguay, and even Standard English and
Caribean Creole.
 • Exists in a speech community where two codes perform two
separate sets of functions
• Superposed variety (H) OR HIGH
• Other varieties - dialects (L) OR LOW
Examples:
1. Arabic (H) and colloquial Arabic (L)
2. Standard German (H) and Swiss German (L)
3. Standard French (H) and Haitian Creole (L)
Example: ARABIC

Church & Mosque Sermons

Political speeches
(H)
University Lectures
News broadcasts

Newspaper editorials and poetry

Example: ARABIC
Giving instructions to waiters, servants
and clerks
(L) In conversation with familiars

Radio soap operas

Captions on political cartoons and

folk literature
• Existence of a large body of literature
in a language that is similar to or the
same as the indigenous language
• Literacy in the community is usually
restricted to a small elite
• Involves centuries in establishing the first and
second conditions
 • Regard H as superior to L leading to
denying the existence of L
Examples:
1. Educated Arabs deny using the L
variety of Arabic
2. Haitian Creole speakers claiming they
speak only French
• Believe that the H variety is more
logical, more beautiful and better
able to express important thoughts
 DIGLOSSIA

A very
Primary divergent
Dialect dialect
(
non
Primary)

L dialect
H dialect
13
FERGUSON’S NINE RUBRIC
OF DIGLOSSIA
 Functio
n
restige
Phonology
P

Diglossia
cquisition

Grammar A
on

Stability

Standardizati
 Ex:
Sermon in
mosques
Speech in
parliament
University
lecture
FUNCTION News
broadcasts

 Conversation with
family and friends
 Radio soap opera
 Folk literature
 Instruction to
workers
  The superior
 Elegant
 Logical
 Expressive

PRESTIGE

 The inferior
 Non elegant
 Ex:
Constitu
tion
LITERATY Law
HERITAGE Poetry
Scriptur
e
Academic
books
 LEARNED
THROUGH
FORMAL
EDUCATION

ACQUISITION

ACQUIRED
THROUGH
EVERYDAY
COMMUNICATI
ON
  RULES FOR
VOCABULARY,
PRONUNCIATION,
AND GRAMMAR ARE
ESTABLISHED.

 THOSE RULES ARE

CODIFIED IN
DICTIONARIES,
PRONUNCIATION
GUIDES, AND
GRAMMAR BOOKS.

STANDARDIZATION

RULES

 NO
CODIFICATIO
STABILITY

Ex:
In delivering a
lecture, a
university
lecturer mixes
dialects he/she
uses.
 - I need a pencil

- I have many cars

- She is beautiful

- I do not understand

- I went there yesterday

- Where do you go?

GRAMMAR - I need pencil
- I have many car
- She beautiful
- I don’t understand/ I
not understand
I not understand
- I go there
yesterday
- You go where?
 IMPARED VOCABULARIES
- Alphabet = Abc
- Concerned with = About
- Advertisement = Ad
- Desserts = Afters
- Police = Cop
- Postman =
LEXICON Postie
- Telegram = Wire
- Issue =
Problem
- Man = Guy
- Criminal = Crook
- Address =
Handle
 = gonna =

/ɡ ʌ nə /
- Want to = wanna = /wɔ nə /
- Have to = hafta = /hæ ftə /
- Used to = us e ta = /jus tə /
- Got to = g otta = /ɡ ɑ də /
- Do you = dya = /djə /
- Would you = wouldja
PHONOLOGY
= /wʊ ʤ ə /
- What do you do =
Whadaya=/wʌ də jə /
- Kind of
= kinda
= /kɑ ɪ ndə /
IInn many ccoountriess, tthhe
globalliizzaattiioon of English has
iinttrroducced a tthhird
ssiiggnifiiccant
llanguage, so that ttrriigglossssiia
and
pollyyglossssiiaa is sstarttiinng
ttoo emerge
so tthhat cchanges in one are
DDiglloosssiia ffiinndd the ddigllosssia
lleeveellss in sseveerraal
rreggionnaal lanngguaggees in
IInndonneesia ssuch aas
JJaavvaneessee,
SSuunnddannessee,
BBaalliinneessee, eettcc..
 In Sundanese

undak usuk basa

 basa cohag (coarse variety),
 basa loma (range for others),
 basa sedeng (medium range or
middle),
 basa lemes (fine variety)
 In Java

 ngoko language (the lowest

level),
 krama (middle),
 krama inggil (high level)
• Monolingualism, that is, the ability to use only one
language, while billingualism is having an effectively
equal control of two native languages. There are two
kinds of bilingualism: stable bilingual & unstable
bilingual.
• People who are bilingual or multilingual do not
necessarily have exactly the same abilities in the languages
(or varieties), in fact, that kind of parity may be
exceptional.
• Do not necessarily have exactly the same abilities in
the languages.
• Have varying degrees of command of the different
repertoires
• The differences in competence in the various
languages might range from
command of a few lexical items
formulaic expressions (e.g. Greetings)
rudimentary conversational skills
excellent command of the grammar
vocabulary
specialized register and styles.’
• Ones must find out who uses what, when, and for what
purpose if they are to be socially competent.
• The language choices are part of the social identity you
claim for themselves.
• Defining different dialects and languages are difficult
• the bilingual–bidialectal distinction that speakers make
reflects social, cultural, and political aspirations or
realities rather than any linguistic reality
ultilingualism
MMuultltiliilningguuaalilsismm
isis aa ssooccieiettyy
SSoocciieettaall tSthShuauactct hhh
hacacossosmsmeemvm
veueurnranaitlil
BBiilliinngguuaallii –– tthhee tielaiensnsgogoucucacacgug
la uerress..
susum ssm ee ooff ttwwoo ((oorr bbeeccaauussee ssoommee e
lm lam
anonogrrgeueu))aag wwiitthhii aa etthhnnicic
gggeeiisvsveenn nn
ccoommmmuunniittyy
ccoommmmuunnititieiess tthh
tthhee
EbEi.i.lgligin..n,,gguua sseettttiinng
b ((aptpt hluhlu
a ererlpaalpllese
sdod
occieiettyy))..
all g s((sShShuauam ppmeaeaararsnsnoeoenttnhohonnicic
iiS
S nnwwiittzzeerrllCaaCnanadnnaad aa
a nnly
ally ddpp Plu
Plu aarrinain
alal a PPaarrttaa
IdI,n, nddiiaa,, daa,, sns
noaoac,,c2ie2ie 00tt0y0y2c2
ca::ann bbee rre
MMaallaayyssiiaa,, e gg aa
eettcc.. 77 66 ))r.r. ddeedd aass
MMiiggrraattiioonn

CCoololonnizizaattioionn

TThhee
FFoorrmm
aattioionn
MMuultlti-i-
lalanngguu
aaggee

tthhee BBoo
TThhee VVrardadrreioeio
rruuss
FFeeddeerraattiioonn
 • Example of multilingualism exists among the Tukano of
the northwest Amazon, on the border between Colombia
and Brazil (Sorensen, 1971).
• The Tukano are multilingual people because men must
marry outside their language group. No man may have a
wife who speaks his language.
• Multilingualism is a norm in this community
• Regarded as problem
• Inferiority
• Being eradicated (Americanization)
• Leading to language loss
• Leading to diffusion (certain features spread from one
language to the other/s as a result of the contact
situation, particularly certain kinds of syntactic features)
By. Ernidawati
• Switch from one code to another or mix codes to
create a new code
• It can occur in conversation between speakers’
turns or within a single speaker’s turn.
• It can arise from individual choice be used as a
major identity marker for a group of speakers.
 Gal (1988:247) says , “ Codeswitching is a
conversational strategy used to establish, cross or
destroy group boundaries; to create, evoke or change
interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations.
• To signal the speaker's ethnic
identity and solidarity with the
addresse

• It can trigger a switch to the

appropiate code

• To express affective rather

than referential meaning
 • (The Maori is n italics. THE TRANSLATION IS IN
SMALL CAPITALS)
Sarah : I think everyone’s here except Mere.
John : She said she might be a bit late but
actually I think that’s her arriving now.
Sarah : You’re right. Kia ora Mere. Haere mai. Kei
te
pehea koe?[HI MERE. COME IN. HOW ARE
YOU?]
Mere : Kia ora e hoa. Kei te pai. Have you
started
yet?
[HELLO MY FRIEND. I’M FINE]
[BOKMAL IS IN SMALL CAPITALS. Ranamal in
lower case]
Jan : Hello Petter. How is your wife now?
Petter : Oh she’s much better thank you Jan. She’s
out of hospital and convalescing well.
Jan : That’s good, I’m pleased to hear it. DO YOU
THINK YOU COULD HELP ME WITH THIS
PESKY FORM?I AM HAVING A GREAT DEAL OF
DIFFICULTY WITH IT
Petter : OF COURSE. GIVE IT HERE
 Code
switching

Situational Code Metaphorical

Switching Code Switching
Reduce differences

people is often quite

subconscious
• E.g. Cantonese and English: 'No problem, la.'
• ' So he asked me for money, znas# and had to say no znas#'
,
I ,

• E.g. 'Sometimes start a sentence in English y termino en

Espanol.' I
• A: Are
you going
to eat?
• B: Bu
yao
• E.g. 'Are you hui jia-ing
• A measurement of language attitudes
• Technique used in social psychological studies to investigate
people’s constant evaluation of personal qualities of others
based on the use of linguistic varieties.
• The use of certain language varieties carries certain social
associations that affects the process of language
maintenance and change.
• Ex: Lambert et al asked listeners to rate the same speaker
reading out a passage in English and in French. They found
that both French Canadian and English Canadian listeners
rated the English guises more favorably than the French
guises.
 Giles and Coupland (1991:58) says,
“Listeners can very quickly stereotype
others’ personal and social attributes on
the basis of language cues and in ways
that appear to have crucial effects on
important social decisions made about
them
• Accomodation is one way of explaining how individuals
and groups may be seen to relate to each other
• Giles and Coupland (1991:60) explaine speech
accomodation as a multiply-organized and contextually
complex set of alternatives, regularly available to
communicators in face to face talk.
Speakers tend to adopt
similar styles to reduce the Speakers adopt different
social distance. It is styles to emphasize their
positively evaluated
. by distinctiveness or increase
speakers their social distance. It
is
negatively evaluated by
speakers.
 • 1.Rajif A. Ruansyah: monolingualism, there two billingual,
what is the differences (stable and unstable)and the example?
• 2.Amida Meila : multilingualism, it’s useful or harmful for
language itself?
• 3. Nova R. Farista: when should we use the code
switching?
• 4.linna Endah: why does the lecture choose to use the L
dialect?
• 5.Hind sha Putri: what is the relationship of two kinds of code
switching and H-L variety?
• 6. Tri Okta Ervina : speech accomodation theory, divergen,
convergen, speech maintenance, when do we use speech
maintenance and we ellaborate it?
• 7.Rofiq Fuadi:what is the example of the mixture
utterance in stability?
• 8. M. Khoirul Fuadi : billingualism and diglosia, please
distinguish between them, as English teacher in the
classroom, we use billingualism or diglosia, and then how
do we overcome the influence of our native dialect, so
that when we communicate with the students can be
fluent.
• 9. Abdul Ghani: if one language has more than two
varieties,can we consider it as diglosia?
• 10. Ahmad Mubais: what is the difference between code
switching and diglosia?