CURRICULUM STUDIES

(TSL3143)

TOPIC 1:
CONCEPTS AND ISSUES IN
CURRICULUM

LECTURER: MS KEE LI LI
OPTION: PISMP SEM 8 TESL
 SYNOPSIS

• Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts

and issues related to curriculum.
• It provides insights to the types of
curriculum, relationship between curriculum,
syllabus, course and programme.
• It also looks at the forces that influence
curriculum construction.
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:

•define curriculum
•describe different types of curricula
•describe the relationship between
curriculum, syllabus, course and programme
•list the forces that influence curriculum
construction
FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
 KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• Making decisions about curriculum includes

considering what the curriculum should be,
how it can be enacted in the classroom and
how students might experience it.
• This section will examine various definitions
of the term curriculum and the relationships
between curriculum, syllabus, course and
programme.
 KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES

• Thus, to understand how the content of

schooling is shaped in any society, we
must understand the relationship between
education and other institutions in society.
• In other words, to understand what is
taught, how it is taught and why it is taught,
we need to look at the social forces that
shape the curriculum.
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

Exercise:
•What is your definition of curriculum?
•Write down in 25 words or less a definition
of curriculum.
•Share your definition with another friend or
in a small group.
•Compare differences and similarities.
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• ‘Scientific’ experts are qualified and

justified in designing curricula based on
expert knowledge of what qualities are
desirable in adult members of society and
it can be known what experiences would
produce those qualities.
(John Franklin Bobbitt)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• Thus, curriculum is defined as the

experiences that someone ought to have
in order to become the kind of adult they
ought to become.
• Curriculum is an ideal rather than reality of
what will actually happen.
(John Franklin Bobbitt)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• Originated from the Latin word currere

referring to the oval track upon which
Roman chariots raced (means literally to
run a course).
• A plan for achieving goals
(Tyler and Taba)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• ‘The planned and guided learning

experiences and intended outcomes,
formulated through the systematic
reconstruction of knowledge and
experiences under the auspices of the
school, for the learners’ continuous and
wilful growth in personal social competence’
Tanner (1980)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• A written document that systematically

describes goals planned, objectives,
content, learning activities, evaluation
procedures and so forth.

Pratt (1980)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• The contents of a subject, concepts and

tasks to be acquired, planned activities,
the desired learning outcomes and
experiences, product of culture and an
agenda to reform society.

Schubert (1987)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• A plan that consists of learning

opportunities for a specific timeframe and
place, a tool that aims to bring about
behavioural changes in students as a result
of planned activities and includes all
learning experiences received by students
with the guidance of the school.
Goodlad and Su (1992)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• A programme of activities (by teachers

and pupils) designed so that pupils will
attain so far as possible certain
educational and other schooling ends or
objectives.
Grundy (1987)
 DEFINITIONS OF CURRICULUM

• All of the experiences that individual

learners have in a programme of education
whose purpose is to achieve broad goals
and related specific objectives, which is
planned in terms of a framework of theory
and research or past and present
professional practice
Hass (1987)
 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

• That which is taught in school

• A set of subjects
• Content
• A programme of studies
• A set of materials
• Sequence of courses
• A set of performance objectives
• A course of study
 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

• Everything that goes on within a school

• Everything that is planned by school
personnel
• That which is taught both inside and
outside of school directed by the school
 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?

• A series of experiences undergone by

learners in school; and
• that which an individual learner
experiences as a result of schooling

Source: Peter F. Oliva, Developing the Curriculum. Boston: Little,

Brown & Company. 1982.
 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
Despite varying definitions of curriculum, there
seems to be a consensus that it is a statement:
•Of what students should know (knowledge or
content);
•Be able to do (skills);
•How it is taught (instruction);
•How it is measured (assessment); and
•How the educational system is organised
(context).
 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
It is a structured plan of intended learning
outcomes, involving knowledge, skills,
behaviour and associated learning
experiences organised as a sequence of
events that a student acquires through
education and training.
(Cornbleth, 1990)
 WHAT IS CURRICULUM?
How we conceive of the curriculum is
important because our conceptions and ways
of reasoning about curriculum reflect how we
think, study and act on the education made
available to students. In short, how we define
the curriculum reflects our assumptions about
the world.
(Cornbleth, 1990)
 TUTORIAL TASK
• In one/two sentences, define the term
‘curriculum’.
 TYPES OF CURRICULA

• Planned curriculum
• Hidden curriculum
• Enacted curriculum
• Null curriculum
 PLANNED CURRICULUM
• Also known as Overt/Explicit/Intended
Curriculum
• The overt curriculum is the open, or public,
dimension and includes current and
historical interpretations, learning
experiences, and learning outcomes.
• The intended curriculum is captured most
explicitly in state content standards.
 PLANNED CURRICULUM
• Statements of what every student must know and
be able to do by some specified point in time
• What students are supposed to learn
• Openly discussed, consciously planned, usually
written down, presented through the instructional
process
• Textbooks, learning kits, lesson plans, school
plays etc.
 HIDDEN CURRICULUM
• Also known as Invisible/Covert Curriculum
• A hidden curriculum is a side effect of an
education, ‘[lessons] which are learned but
not openly intended’ such as the transmission
of norms, values, and beliefs conveyed in the
classroom and the social environment.
• Any learning experience may teach
unintended lessons.
 HIDDEN CURRICULUM
• The processes…the ‘noise’ by which the overt
curriculum is transmitted
• ‘they are also learning and modifying attitudes,
motives, and values in relationship to the
experiences…in the classroom.’
• The non-academic outcomes of formal
education are sometimes of greater
consequence than is learning the subject matter.
 ENACTED CURRICULUM
• The enacted curriculum refers to instruction
(e.g. what happens in classrooms).
• the content actually delivered during
instruction (i.e., instructional content), as
well as how it is taught (i.e., instructional
practices).
• Typically, the content targets are based on
the intended/planned curriculum.
 ENACTED CURRICULUM
• In other words, the enacted curriculum is
what students get the chance to learn, as
well as how teachers ‘deliver’ the content.
• The ‘Enacted Curriculum’ reflects the daily
curricular experience of a student within
instructional settings exemplified by
assignments, instructional practices, and
managed content.
 NULL CURRICULUM
• When a topic is never taught:
• ‘too unimportant…’
• ‘too controversial…’
• ‘too inappropriate…’
• ‘not worth the time…’
• ‘not essential…’
 NULL CURRICULUM
• That which we do not teach
• Thus giving students the message that
these elements are not important in their
educational experiences or in our society.
 TUTORIAL TASK
• Differentiate the types of curricula using
appropriate mind maps.
• Explain to classmates the characteristics
of each type of curriculum.
 FORCES THAT INFLUENCE
CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
• Knowing the social foundations of
curriculum is crucial in making decisions
about what should be included in the
curriculum and eventually what happens in
the classroom.
• Schools exist within the context of society
and influence culture which in turn shapes
curriculum.
 FORCES THAT INFLUENCE
CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
• The story ‘Curriculum of Forest School’
illustrates this point.
• A curriculum should be able to prepare
students for the present and the future.
• In other words, a curriculum should address the
wants and needs of learners by responding to
social conditions locally, nationally and globally.
(McNeil, 1995)
 FORCES THAT INFLUENCE
CURRICULUM CONSTRUCTION
• Political
• Economic
• Social
 POLITICAL

• In the politics of the school curriculum,

Dennis Lawton observes that curriculum
development is about selecting ‘the most
important aspects of culture for
transmission to the next generation.’
 POLITICAL

• One of the of the crucial questions to ask

is the political question: ‘Who makes the
selection?’
• Education is normally a covert tool in the
stratagem(scheme/ploy) of the political
class.
 ECONOMIC
• Education was primarily didactic and learning
was less book-based that it is today.
• Controlled largely by the teacher, education
focused predominantly on basic skills.
• Teachers taught reading, writing and
arithmetic to complement the skill students
learn outside school.
 ECONOMIC
• By the beginning of the 20th century, the
industrial revolution brought about drastic
changes in the economy of many countries.
More people moved to live in cities and working
in factories. As a consequence new skills were
needed in an industrial society. It was then that
a great change took pace in education: the
model of schools as a factory emerged.
 ECONOMIC
• Students were taught the facts and skills they
needed for industrial jobs, which they were
likely to hold their entire lives. One-room
schools were eventually replaced by large
buildings. Students were sorted by grades
and sat in straight rows, with a teacher at the
front of the classroom in control of learning.
The curriculum was compartmentalised.
 ECONOMIC
• Without doubt, in the post-industrial or
information society, a new curriculum will
be needed. It is envisioned that in the new
model, education will be more
personalised. In other words, education
will be more differentiated to meet each
student’s learning requirements.
 ECONOMIC
• Students will be challenged with higher
expectations of learning, and encouraged
to think critically and creatively as they
solve problems. They will spend more time
using information technology and learn
independently. The knowledge gained and
skills acquired and attitudes nurtured will
support them throughout life.
 SOCIAL
• Society is increasingly becoming diverse,
especially in urban areas. Societies are
becoming more multicultural, multi-ethnic
and multi-religious and it is important that
curriculum understands and reflect these
changes.
 SOCIAL
• The complexion of our students is
changing from one colour to various
shades of colour and this adding of colour
and cultural diversity will continue into the
foreseeable future’

Ornstein and Hunkins (1998)

 SOCIAL
• As the world moves towards becoming a
global village, society will become even
more diverse.
• People bring in new values, new
languages and a new way of life.
 SOCIAL
• Addressing diversity in the curriculum will
continue to be a challenge for educators.
• It is a task that will at times be politically
sensitive.
• One concept that has interested educators
is assimilation or integration of the diverse
groups.
 SOCIAL
• In the 60s and 70s the melting pot
approach was adopted in some countries
in an attempt to assimilate people of
different cultural, ethnic and religious
backgrounds.
• It is metaphor for the way in which diverse
societies develop.
 SOCIAL
• The ingredients in the pot (people of different
cultures, languages and religions) are combined
so as to lose their distinct identities resulting in a
final product that is quite different from the
original inputs.
• Usually, it involved the blending of minority
groups with the majority.
• It was hoped that a national identity would evolve
from these varied attributes.
 SOCIAL
• However, in practice the culture of the
majority became dominant.
• This approach has proven to be less
successful in assimilating people and has
been replaced by the salad bowl approach.
• Here people of diverse backgrounds are all
in the same salad but maintain their own
unique features.
 SOCIAL
• Cultural diversity of pluralism recognises that
most societies are composed of many voices
and many ethnic groups. It is a framework in
which groups show respect and tolerance of
each other; coexist and interact without conflict.
Power and decision making is shared leading to
more widespread participation and greater
feeling of commitment from society members.
 SOCIAL
• How should curriculum address cultural
diversity or pluralism?
• The challenge confronting educators is
developing curriculum that is responsive to
students’ diverse social and cultural values
and at the same time capable of creating a
national identity based on core values and
practices.
 SOCIAL
• It may be necessary to have different
programmes, different pedagogical approaches,
flexible curriculum and even varied educational
environments to address the needs of all
students.
• No society can afford to socially or economically
marginalise any student and the curriculum must
nurture students to become active participants in
a dynamic and emerging society (Schon, 1993).
 CONCERNS OF DIFFERENT SHAREHOLDERS
IN MALAYSIAN CONTEXT

Special Interest Groups and Curriculum:

•Curriculum decision making is political.
•Various special interest groups continually
propose what should be included in school
curriculum.
•The topics range form substance abuse to
the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
 TOPICS
• Environmental groups insist that students
should be taught about conservation and
preservation and the inculcation of values
to love the environment.
• Among the concerns of these groups are
caring for our rivers, industrial pollution,
saving the whales and leatherback turtles.
 TOPICS
• Substance abuse is another concern of
society. Substance abuse includes drugs
(such as heroin, marijuana, ecstasy pills, etc),
alcohol, cigarettes, glue sniffing and so forth.
• Society has repeatedly emphasised the need
for substance abuse prevention programmes
to be included in school curriculum.
 TOPICS
• Groups involved in prevention of drug
addiction are keen to see that students are
taught about drug addiction in the hope
that they will be more aware of the
problem and say ‘no’ to the habit.
 TOPICS
• Consumer advocates are keen to see that
students are taught about their rights and
responsibilities as consumers in the hope
that they will be more prudent consumers
as students and later as adults.
 TOPICS
• Health groups have also suggested that schools
introduce programmes about HIV Aids
awareness, nutritional information, and other
health related issues.
• As society becomes more developed, the rise in
obesity is of concern in terms of its
consequences on the health system, especially
in worker productivity and increased expenditure
on health care.
 TOPICS
• Sex education has been a topic that has
been proposed at various points;
especially when statistics and instances of
teen pregnancy and promiscuity are
highlighted by the media and government
reports.
 TOPICS
• Crime prevention by educating the
community on crime prevention
techniques and by getting citizens involved
in crime prevention activities such as
neighbourhood watch to reduce the
number of crimes and increase the quality
of life of citizens.
 TOPICS
• Governments are also determined to
ensure that students are taught about their
rights and responsibilities as citizens.
• Citizenship education has been proposed
in an effort to politically socialise students
with democratic ideals, principles and
practices.
 TOPICS
• Being prepared to play a part in political
institutions is essential such as the ability to
make informed decision at the personal and
societal level.
• Similarly, to be educated to take an active part in
the cultural life of society such as holding on to
religious and moral beliefs, the ability to use and
interpret a wide range of media, socialisation of
children and so forth.
 REFLECTION
• Do you think that the syllabuses (syllabi) &
textbooks used in our country adequately
reflect your national ideology & the
demands of our society?
 TASK
• Surf the internet to get more information
on this topic.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

• The information on the slides are obtained

from the PPG module of Curriculum
Studies TSL3143.
THE END