(CROP SCIENCE)

AGRICULTURE
 The art, science, and business of systematic
production of useful plants and animals for man’s
use and consumption through human management.
 Considered as an ART because of the aesthetic
importance of plants.
 Considered as a SCIENCE because it involves
scientific knowledge for better production
 Considered as BUSINESS because plants are not
grown simply to satisfy the needs of man but to
realize some profit in the process of production.
Importance of Agriculture:
 The key to economic advancement – because of the
increase in livelihood.
 The key to healthy biosphere – because it increase
in plant productionwill also increase presence of
oxygen in the atmosphere.
 Production of raw materials for industries.
 Source of foreign exchange (export and import)
 Source of food.
Farming
 Isthe cultivation of land for the production of crops,
the raising of farm animals for egg, milk and meat, the
production of fruit and other horticultural and
agronomical crops.

Farming and Agriculture are interchangeably used

although agriculture is broader in scope for it includes
the production of timber and other forest products.
 Branches of Agriculture:
1. Horticulture- propagation of fruits, vegetables, and
ornamental plants.
Divisions of Horticulture:
a.Olericulture- growing of vegetables.
b.Pomology- planting of fruit trees.
c.Floriculture- propagation of flowering plants.
d.Landscape Horticulture- growing of ornamental
plants for mass effect in garden.

2. Plant Industry- growing of plants that are used for

staple and fiber crops.
3. Animal Industry- raising of animals for meat, milk,
and other raw product for the industry.

4. Aquaculture (Fishery)- the farming of fresh water and

saltwater organisms including, crustaceans, and
seeweeds.

5. Agricultural Economics- business aspects.

6. Farm Engineeering- application of engineering

techniques to agriculture.
Plants- are multicellular organisms that produce their own food
from inorganic matter through the process of photosynthesis.

Importance of Plants:
1. Source of food, shelter, and medicine.
2. Source of oxygen.
3. Slow the wind speed.
4. Source of raw materials for the industry.
5. Help cool the environment.

Negative Effects of Plants:

1. Some plants are toxic.
2. Plants’ pollen evokes allergic reactions.
3. Some plants become weeds and invasive.
4. Old, big and tall trees become destructive to property and human safety
especially during natural calamities.
 4 Basic Plants Parts

1. ROOTS- the underground parts of the plants.

Functions:
a. Holds and anchor the plant in place.
b. Absorbs water and nutrients.
c. Transport water and nutrients to the stem.
d. Stores food and water.

Types of Root System:

a.Tap Root System- primary root grows down from the stem with
some small secondary roots forming. (carrots)
b. Fibrous Roots System- small lateral roots that spread out just
below the soil’s surface. (corns and rice)
2. STEM- allow the plant to grow upright, and is transport system
for the water and minerals coming from the ground.

Functions:
a. Movement of water and minerals from the roots upward and
movement of manufactured food down.
b. Support the leaves and reproductive structures.
c. Used for food storage and reproduction of plants involving
cuttings.
d. Green stems manufacture food just as leaves do.

Types of Stem:
a. Herbaceous- usually soft and bendable.
b. Woody- hard and do not bend easily.
 Stem Structure

a. External Stem Structure

1. Node- area from where side branches and leaves develop.
2. Internodes- area between nodes.
3. Lenticels- small holes located in the stem.
4. Leaf Scar- shows where leaf was attached; the distance between
two represents one year growth.

b. Internal Stem Structure

1. Phloem- bark, carries manufactured food down.
2. Xylem- wood, carries water and minerals up.
3. Cambium- separates the phloem and xylem and produces new
cells.
3. LEAF- the manufacturing organ of the plant.

Functions:
a. Conducts photosynthesis ( the process that allows
plants to take energy from the sun and create sugar).
b. Conducts transpiration ( the loss of water and
exchange of carbon dioxide).
c. Storage of water ( succulent parts).
d. Serves as the defense system in some plants ( thorns
and toxins).
e. Anchorage in some plant ( those with tendrils to help
climb).
Types of Leaf:
1. Pinnate Leaves-
leaflets in pairs and
attached along a central
rachis (the main stem of
a compound leaf).
2. Palmate Leaves-
leaflets attached at the
same point at the end
of the petiole.
3. Peltate Leaves- petioles that are attached to the middle of
the blade (cassava).

4. Perfoliate Leaves- sessile leaves that surround and are

pierced by stems.

Parts of Leaf

a. Internal Anatomy
1. Epidermis- responsible for gas and water exchange.
2. Stomata- opening in epidermis.
3. Mesophyll- middle layer of the leaf where photosynthesis
occur.
 Parts of Leaf
b. External Anatomy
1. Blade (lamina)- the main
body.
2. Petiole (stalk)- attaches the
blade to the stem.
3. Midrib- large central veins
4. Base- attaches to petiole, if
petiole is absent, attaches directly
to stem.
5. Apex- tip of the leaf.
6. Margin- edge of the leaf.
7. Stipule- the two appendages at
the base of the petiole (often
absent).
Phyllotaxy- arrangement of leaves on the stems.

a. Alternate- one leaf attached per

node, usually staggered (spiral)
along stem.
b. Opposite- two leaves
(a pair) attached per node, usually
opposite each other. 
c. Whorled - three or more leaves
attached per node, usually equally
spaced around the node.
Venation- arrangement of veins in a leaf.

1. Pinnate venation- feather-like, net venation with lateral veins extending

from a central midrib
(dicots - ex. elm, oak).
2. Palmate venation- finger-like, net venation with several major veins
diverging from the union of the petiole and the leaf blade (dicots - ex. maple).
3. Parallel venation- principal veins parallel to the axis of the leaf (monocots
- ex. grasses).
4. SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN- consist of flowers, fruits
and seeds.

a. FLOWER- reproductive structure of flowering plants; also called

bloom or blossom.

Functions:
a. Facilitate pollination.
b. Give rise to fruit and trees.
c. Attracts animals to be vectors for the transfer of the pollen.
d. Admired and used by humans for beautification, also as objects of
romance, ritual, religion, medicine, and food.
 Parts of a Flower
1. Pistil (carpel)- female part.
Consist of:
a. Stigma- a sticky structure at the end of the pistil that catches the pollen.
b. Style- the neck of the pistil; the structure between the ovary and stigma.
c. Ovary- where the ovule resides.
d. Ovule- where the eggs are produced.

2. Stamen- male part.

Consist of:
a. Anther- produces and holds the pollen.
b. Filament- stalk that holds up the anther.

3. Petals- highly colored part of the flower. Unit of corolla.

*corolla- the collection of petals in a flower.

4. Sepals- small green structures on the base that protect the flower bud; sometimes sepals are colorful. Unit of calyx.
*calyx-is a group of sepals.

5. Pedicel- the stem of the flower.

6. Receptacle- the place where floral organs are attached and originate.

7. Perianth- combined calyx and corolla.

Parts of a Flower
 Classification of Flowers

a. Complete Flower- has all the four basic parts.

b. Incomplete Flower- missing one of the four basic parts.
c. Perfect Flower- has stamens and pistil parts.
d. Imperfect Flower- lacking one of the sex structures.

Types of Flowers

a. Monoceious- stamens and pistils are found in separate

flowers on the same plant. (corn)
b. Dioecious- male or staminate flowers found on one plant,
female or pistillate flowers found on another plant. (hemp)
B. Fruits- it is a mature, ripened ovary. Contained the seed (ripened
ovule) and pericarp (the tissue that sorrounds the seeds).

Classification of Fruit

a. Simple Fruits- one fruit develop from single ovary of a flower with or without
accessory glands. (corn and peanut)
b. Aggregate- develops from a single flower with many ovaries. (strawberry and
atis)
c. Multiple- fruit develops from a group of clustered flowers. (pineapples)

Types of Fruit

a.Fleshy Fruit- are juicy or succulent.

1.Berry- has an entirely fleshy ovary. (tomatoes, bananas, blueberries).
2. Hesperidium- have leathery rind. (oranges, lemons)

on
3. Pepo- is a type of fruit defined by hard rind and a fleshy inner matrix.
(watermelons, squash)
4. Drupe- is a fruit with fleshy exterior and a single hard, stony pit
surrounding the seed. (mango, peaches, coconut).
5. Pomes- have a fleshy exterior and a center with papery carpels.
(apples, pears)

b. Dry Fruits- may be indehiscent or dehiscent.

1. Indehiscent- are those that do not split open at maturity and usually
one or two-seeded. (coconut)
2. Dehiscent- are fruits that split open upon maturation. (legume,
peanut, peas)
c. Seed- a ripened ovule which when shed from the parent plant consist of
embryo and stored food supply both of which are enclosed in a seed coat or a
covering.

Dicotyledon- embryo lies within an axis of two cotyledons.

Monocotyledon- consist of seed coat, endosperm and embryo.

SEED STRUCTURE
SEED STRUCTURE

1. Embryo- developing plants

still inside the seed or immature
plant from which a new plant
grows under proper conditions.
*Epicotyl- embryonic stem above
the point of attachment of the
cotyledons.
*Hypocotyl- embryonic stem
below the point of attachment pf
the cotyledon.
*Radicle- embryonic root.

2. Cotyledon (Embryonic
Leaves)- food supply of the
embryo.
SEED STRUCTURE

3. Seed Coat or Testa- is the outer

and protective layer covering the
seed. The testa protects the seed
from fungi, bacteria, and insects, it
has to be split open by the radicle
before germination can proceed.

4. Hilum- is a scar left on the seed

coat by the former attachment to
the ovary wall.

5. Micropyle- a tiny/small pore in

the testa that allow the water
absorption.

6. Plumule- the shoot of embryo.

Classes of Seeds:

a. Breeder Seeds – controlled by the originating plant breeder; starting

point of all the subsequent classes of seeds; seeds obtained from uniform
panicles by breeders; 100 percent pure and carry a white tag.

b. Foundation Seeds – seeds produced from breeder seeds; source of

registered and/or certified seeds; carry a red tag.

c. Registered Seeds - produced from foundation or registered seeds and

carry a green tag.

d. Certified Seeds – produced from foundation, registered or certified seeds

and carry a blue tag.

e. Good Seeds – produced from varieties not yet approved by NSIC and
carry a yellow tag.
 BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

A. Mode of Reproduction
1. Sexual- plants that develop from seed or spore after undergoing union of sexual
gametes.
2. Asexual- plants which reproduce by any vegetative means without the union of sexual
gametes.

B. Life Span
1. Annual- plants which germinate, grow, flower, produce seeds and die soon after
producing seeds all in one season. (rice)
2. Biennial- plants that require two planting season.
3. Perennial- plants that live indefinitely, they grow and produce seeds year after year.
(fruit trees)

C. Leaf Retention
1. Evergreen- plants that maintain their leaves throughout the year, abscised leaves are
continually replaced by new flushes. (pines)
2. Deciduous- plants which shed off or lose leaves annually for extended periods. (fire
tree, sinigwelas)
D. Growth Habit

1. Herbs- succulent plants with self-supporting stems. (banana)

2. Vines- herbaceous climbing or twinning plants without self
supporting. (amapalya)
3. Lianas- woody climbing or twinning plants which depend on
other plants for vertical support to climb. (grapes)
4. Shrubs- small tree or tree-like plants, less than 5 meters in
height; they are small, erect, woody plants which produce several
trunk from the base. (kamuning)
5. Trees- plants having erect and continuous growth with large
development of woody tissues with a single distinct stem or trunk.
E. Ecological Adaptation or Habitat
1. Hydrophyte- plants adapted to growing in water or waterlogged.
(kangkong)
2. Epiphytes- grow upon other plants but not parasitic. Also called as air
plants or tree dwellers. (orchids)
3. Halophytes- grows excessively rich in salts or saline conditions. (talisay,
kandaruma, coconut, mangrove)
4. Lithophyte- plants grow on rocks or on rocky terrain.
5. Mesophyte- terrestrial plants which are adapted to moderate conditions
(not too dry and not wet). (corn)
6. Parasite- plants that grow on other plants from which they take part of
nourishment or all of nourishment. (mistletoe)
7. Saprophyte- plants that grow in decaying organic matter and have no
green tissue. (mushroom)
8. Sciophyte- plants that are adapted to low light intensity. The shade loving
plants. (ferns, cacao, coffee)
9. Xerophyte- plants that are adapted to conditions with little or no water.
(cactus, adelfa)
 F. Classification of Crops Based on Purpose

1. Cereals/grain crops – grown for their grains.

Examples: rice, corn, wheat, sorghum

2. Legumes – for pods and seeds.

Examples: cowpea, mungbean,sitao, peanut

3. Root crops – for enlarged roots/ tuberous roots.

Examples: cassava, ubi

4. Fiber crops – grown for their fibers used in textile, cordage, twines, sacks, bags etc.
Examples: cotton, jute

5. Oil crops – grown for their oil content.

Examples: soybean, peanut, sunflower, castor, coconut

6. Sugar crops – grown for their sugar content.

Examples: sugarcane, sugar beet

7. Pasture/Forage crops – used for roughage source for animals.

Example: para grass, napier grass, ipilipil, Stylosanthes
8. Beverage crops – used for brewing non-alcoholic drinks.
Examples: coffee, cacao, tea

9. Spices, condiments, essences – used to provide special flavor, scent, and color to food, perfumes,
soaps and body dressing.
Example: black pepper, vanilla, citronella, ilang-ilang, annatto

10. Latex and resins – used for extracting sap from the trunk/stem.
Examples: rubber, chico, pili, rimas, papaya

11. Medicinal and poison crops – with curative, laxative and pesticidal properties.
Example: lagundi, sambong,tobacco

12. Vegetables – usually eaten with staple crops, further classified according to similarities in the
method of culture.
a. Root – radish, carrot
b. Leafy – spinach, lettuce
c. Stem – celery, asparagus
d. Flowers – squash, katuray
e. Fruit – okra, tomato, eggplant

13. Fruits – edible botanical fruits usually used for dessert which may be eaten raw, cooked or in
processed form. Example: pineapple, cashew, mango
14. Ornamentals – plants cultivated mainly for their aesthetic value, further classified
according to their special uses.

1. Cutflowers– grown for its flowers.

Examples: roses, orchids

b. Cut-foliage- foliage provides background in floral arrangement.

Examples: ferns, fortune plant, palmera

c. Flowering pot plants – plants grown in containers for their flowers usually used for display.
Example: poinsettia

d. Landscape plants- for landscaping purposes.

Example: blue palm, white grass, song of india

e. Foliage plants – for attractive foliage, maybe grown indoor or outdoor for decoration.
Example: begonia, philondendron

f. Turf – used in lawns or greens.

Examples: Bermuda grass, carabao grass, blue grass
G. Special Groups

1. Green manure – a crop that is plowed under while still green and growing to improve the
soil.
eg. Sesbania

2. Cover crop – any crop grown to provide soil cover, prevent soil erosion by wind, or water,
improve soil and control weeds.
eg. Centrosema

3. Companion crop – crop sown with another crop and harvested separately. The
combination benefits either or both of the crops.
eg. ipilipil planted with black pepper

4. Trap crop – a crop which is planted to protect the main crop from pests by attracting the
pest to the crop itself and later destroying it.
eg. main crop is rice and sweet potato is planted to trap some rats

5. Catch crop – a short seasoned crop grown immediately after the failure of the main crop
to utilize residual resources eg. rice is the main crop but may have been destroyed by
typhoon therefore pechay or mustard is planted immediately.
 AGRICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION
a. Crops vs. Weeds
*Crops- are plants that are useful, grown for a purpose and utilized by man either
directly or indirectly.
*Weeds- are plants that grow where they are not wanted and compete with the
intended crop for space, soil, water, nutrients and light.

b. Agronomic vs. Horticultural Crops

*Agronomic Crops- also called “field crops”; mostly annual herbaceous plants that
are grown extensive or large-scale culture.
*Horticultural Crops- referred to as “garden crops”; are annual and perennial crops
which are grown under an intensive system of culture, generally utilized with high
moisture content and are therefore perishable.

c. Soilage and Silage Crops

*Soilage Crops- grasses grown, cut and directly fed to animals. (cut and carry system)
*Silage Crops- grasses grown, cut, fermented and preserved before being fed to
animals. (silo)
2 Stages of Plant Growth
1. Vegetative Stage- the stage where the roots, stem, and leaves
develop.
2. Reproduction Stage- the production of flower and seeds.

Plant Propagation
Propagation- the process of multiplying or increasing the
population of a species and at the same time perpetuating their
desirable characteristics.

2 types of PROPAGATION
1. Sexual Propagation- propagation using seeds and spores.
2. Asexual Propagation- Propagation using the vegetative parts
of the mother plant.
 Sexual Propagation
-most common method by which plants reproduce in nature.
-most efficient and widely used method of cultivated crops. Seeds arise from the
fusion of male and female gametes to form a single cell (zygote) within the ovule of
a flower.

Seed Germination- the emergence of a new plant from the mature seed.
- resumption of embryo growth.

Methods of Seed Germination:

a. Rag Doll Method- placing the seed in a moisture fabrics and fold it gently.
b. Seed Box- sowing the seeds in a sterilized soil placed in a rectangular container.
c. Petri Dish- this is advisable in germinating tiny or small seeds which is placed in
plate that contains a moist paper.

*Epigenous Germination- hypocotyl elongates and brings cotyledons above

ground.
*Hypogenous Germination- epicotyl emerges and the cotyledons remain below
soil.
Seed Dormancy- physiological or physical condition of a
viable seed that prevents germination even in the presence of
otherwise favorable germination conditions.

Seed Quiescence- condition in which seed cannot germinate

because of unfavorable condition.

Types of Dormancy
a. Exogenous or Coat-imposed Dormancy- essential
germination components not available.
b. Endogenous Dormancy- caused by environment during
seed development and maturation.
Dormancy Technology
a. Ecodormancy- due to one or more unsuitable factors in the environment with
non specific effect.
b. Paradormancy- due to physical factors.
c. Endodormancy- regulated by physiological factors inside affectected structure.

Hastening Seed Germination / Breaking Dormancy

1. Scarification- is any treatment that removes the seed coat or alters it, making it
more permeable to water and air. This can be done mechanically by rubbing into a
rough surface or the use of chemicals such hydrogen peroxide and muriatic acid.

Types of Scarification:
a. Physical Scarification- soaking in water ( tap, hot or boiling water) for specific
period of time.
b. Mechanical Scarification- piercing, rubbing on sand paper, filling, grinding
with abrasives.
c. Chemical Scarification- treatment with sulfuric acid and organic solvents.
2. Stratification- is the replacement of seeds between layers of moist
sand, soil, or sawdust at high or low temperature so the action of
water and high and low temperature will soften the seed coat.

3. Vernalization- seed treatment to cold temperature prior to

germination.

4. Embryo Culture- aseptically removing th embryo from the seed

and placing it in sterilized cuture medium to germinate.
Pollination- is the process by which pollen is transferred in plants, thereby enabling
fertilization and sexual reproduction.

Types of Pollination:
a. Abiotic- refers to the situation where pollination is mediated without the involvement
of other organisms.
*Anemophily- pollination by wind; is predominant in grasses, most conifers and many
deciduous trees.
*Hydrophily- pollination by water; occuirs in aquatic plants which release their pollen
directly into the surrounding water.

b. Biotic- pollination requires pollinators ( organisms that carry or move the pollen
grains from the anther to the receptive part of the carpel or pistil).

Agents of Pollination:
1. Insects
2. Animals
3. Wind
4. Water
5. Human
 Methods of Planting Seeds (Sowing)

1. Direct Seeding- seeds are planted directly into the soil

outdoors where the plants are intended to be grown. (carrots,
maize, peanut)

2. Indirect Seeding- seeds planted indoors or in protected

conditions in containers of germination medium. Once
germinated and grow into seedling, then transplanted outdoors
into permanent location. (pechay, rice, eggplant)

*Viability- the ability of a seed to germinate and produce a

new plant.
 Asexual Propagation
- is method of plant propagation using the vegetative parts of a plant like the stem,
leaf, roots, etc.
- development of a new plant naturally of artificially without the use of seeds.

Types of Vegetative Propagation

1. Natural Vegetative Propagation- a process found in herbaceous and woody

perennial plants.

By Roots
a. Shoots- are produced by woody plants like Dahlia.
b. Adventitious Buds- formed on the roots of plants like sweet potato.

By Leaves
a. Totipotency- has succulent (fleshy) leaves and adventitious buds are present at
the margins of the leaves. These leaves fall off and grow into new plant.
By Stem
Types:
a. Subaerial Stem- branches that arise from the stem which are very close
to the surface of the ground break off from the parent plant and develop
new plants.

Classification:
*Runners- prostrate aerial stem that grows horizontally along the ground.
(strawberry)
*Suckers- regeneration of a plant by shoots that arise from existing root
system. (banana)
*Stolons- a horizontal branch from the base of the plant that produces new
plants from buds at its tips. (Bermuda grass)
*Offset- a short prostate shoot, which takes root and produces a tuft of
leaves. (water lettuce)
*Slips- shoot just arising below the crown but above the ground.
(pineapple)
b. Underground Stem- portion of the stem that is underground; in
some plants, serves two functions: it tides over the unfavorable
conditions by storing food and becoming dormant and then
germinating with the help of auxiliary buds when there are favorable
conditions.

Classification:
*Tubers- underground stem is swollen and the nodal regions are
called the eyes. (potato)
*Rhizome- a modified underground stem serving as an organ of
vegetative reproduction. (ginger)
*Corm- a bul-like structure enclosed by dry-scale leaves. (gabi,
gladiolus)
*Bulb- underground stem that is very small and disk-like enclosed
with thick, fleshy scales. (onion)
2. Artificial Vegetative Propagation- is a common practice to vegetatively
propagate cultivars that have desirable characteristics.

Methods of Asexual Propagation

a. Cutting- the most common method in propagating plants ; done through cutting
a vegetative parts with few buds and placing it under favorable conditions until it
resembles a complete plant.

Types:
*Stem Cutting- a piece of stem is partly buried in the soil, including at least one
node. (malunggay)
*Root Cutting- a section of the root is buried just below the soil surface and
produce new shoots. (apple)
*Leaf Cutting- a leaf is placed in a moist soil producing one plant at the base of
the leaf. (welcome plant, begonia)
*Eye Cutting- pieces of foliated or defoliated stalks with one or more eyes.
(bamboo)
b. Layering- roots are induced on the shoots while they are
still attached to the mother plants.

Types:
*Air Layering (Marcotting)- rooting is done on the shoot
itself when it is still attached to the mother plants.
*Ground/Simple Layering- rooting is done in the ground
while the branch is still attached to the mother plant.
*Mound/Stool Layering- rooting is done on the new shoots
from the ground level.
*Tip Layering- similar to simple layering, the difference is
the tip of the branch nearest to the ground is the one buried.
c. Grafting- two plant parts (scion and rootstock) are joined
together in such a manner that they unite and continue they
growth as one.

*Scion- short piece of detached shoot with one to several

dormant buds and which is to become the upper portion of graft
combination.
*Rootstock- lower portion of graft which develops into the
roots system of the grafted plant.
*Interstock- a piece of stem inserted between the scion and
stock ( to avoid compatibility between scion and rootstock
and/or to take advantage of its growth controlling properties).
Types:
*Approach Grafting (Inarching)- selected shoots of the desirable plant are
grafted with the stem of the stock grown in individual containers while the
scions are still connected with the mother plant.
*Bark grafting- it is used to flowering and fruit trees. This method is
especially useful in grafting a detached scion on a stumped stock whose
stem is much larger than that of s scion.
*Side-veneer Grafting- the basal portion of the detached scion is joined at
the side of the trunk of the stock.
*Splice Grafting- is usually applied to herbaceous materials that callus or
knit easily. The detached scion used is leafless, the scion and rootstock are
at the same diameter.
*Bridge Grafting- is used to “bridge” a diseased or damaged area of plant,
usually at or near the base of the trunk.

D. Budding- a grafting technique in which a single bud from the desired

scion is used rather than an entire scion containing many buds, this is
commonly used in citrus plants.
 Special Practices in Crop Production

*Windbreak – rows of trees or shrubs that protect crops from strong winds.

*Shading – required for normal growth and development for sciophytes.

*Hardening – exposing young plants slowly to the outdoor environment.

*Pricking – transfer of seedlings from overcrowded container to another

container.

*Rouging – removal of off-type or diseased plants.

*Mulching – placing mulch (a protective layer made of either organic or

inorganic material) over the soil
*Pruning– removal of plant parts to attain a specific objective (preventive, formative, corrective,
rejuvenative).
Types of Pruning:
1. Heading-back - the cuts are made at the terminal portion of the plant capitalizes on what is
known as “apical dominance”.
2. Thinning-out - the complete removal of any number of branches. - the remaining branches retain
their apical dominance, suppresses the development of the lateral buds and grow into sturdy boughs.

*Fruit thinning – removal of some fruits to minimize inter-fruit nutrient and assimilate
competition.

*Deblossoming – removal of flowers on the young woody plants to have full canopy development.

*Ratooning – growing of a new crop out of the shoots arising from the previous crop.

*Desuckering – removal of unnecessary slickers from the base (mat) of banana or abaca.

*Training – bending, twisting, and tying of plants to support structures.

*Trellising – providing structural support to plants so that stems, leaves, or fruits are kept away
from the ground and plants are more exposed to sunlight; arbor or overhead type, fence type, pole
type, T-type, A-type, teepee type.
*Propping – providing support to bunches or stalks which tend to bend due to heavy load of fruits; singe
pole, double pole, cable propping.

*Fruit bagging – wrapping fruits either individually or as a group with newspaper, jutesack, or PEB to
prevent damage from pests, diseases, and strong wind.

*Latex stimulation – use of Ethrel to stimulate latex production of old rubber trees.

*Flower induction – hacking (wounding trunk of mango tree to release ethylene); smudging (smoky fire
below mango tree canopy); potassium nitrate (Carabao, Pico, and Pahutan mango cultivars); calcium carbide
or Ethrel (pineapple).

*Pollinators – increase percentage of seed setting.

*Control of sex expression – maleness (long days, high temperatures, gibberellins); femaleness (short days,
low temperatures, auxin and ethylene).

*Distance isolation – maintain genetic purity and avoid seed variability especially in cross-pollinated plants
 Time isolation – at least 3 weeks difference in time flowering.

*Tetrazolium Test - it is a colometric test in which the biochemical reaction causes the test solution to
change color under certain conditions. Respiring and viable seeds will change color to red; dead or non-
respiring seeds remain colorless.
 CROPPING SYSTEM

*Cropping System - refers to the pattern or arrangement of crops in time and space, as well as
the process of growing them.

*Polyculture Farming System - involves the mixture of annual crops with other annuals,
annuals with perennials, or perennials with perennials, or perennials with perennials planted in
spatial pattern.

Cropping Pattern - The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or of crops and
fallows on a given area.

1. Monocropping – a method of crop production in which only one crop is grown annually in
the same parcel of land (perennial monoculture and annual crop monoculture).
*Monoculture – only one crop is grown in a given area throughout the year

Types of Monoculture:
a. Perennial monoculture – this involves the planting of trees especially on steep slopes and
heavy clay soils. Rubber, ipilipil and coconut are suitable trees under this system.

b. Annual crop monoculture – this system utilizes both upland and lowland annual crops like
rice, corn and vegetables
2. Multiple Cropping – growing of more than one crop on the
same land in one year.

Types of Multiple Cropping:

a. Sequential Cropping – growing of two or more crops in
sequence on the same field within a 12 month period, with the
succeeding crop planted only after the preceding crop has
been harvested such that a farmer managed only one crop at
any time on the same field.

b. Ratoon Cropping – the development of a new crop

without replanting from buds on the root system, stubble or
stems of the preceding crops, a harvest not necessarily for
grains. Rice under certain conditions can be a ratooned crop.
c. Intercropping - it is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously on
the same field such that the period of overlap is long enough to include
vegetative stage.
- the growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of
land, base crop necessarily in distinct row arrangement, or with or without a
row arrangement (row intecropping or mixed cropping).

d. Relay Cropping – growing of two or more crops together, but seedling

or transplanting the succeeding one after flowering and before the harvest
of the former crop.

Other Types of Cropping Patterns:

*Strip cropping – the growing of two or more crops simultaneously in
separate plots arranged in strips that can be independently cultivated
*Sorjan cultivation – system of crop cultivation in parallel beds and sinks
wherein lowland crops are planted in the sinks and upland crops are grown
in beds. Two successive upland crops can be grown in beds during the year
and the rice crops in the sinks.
*Alley Cropping – the system follows an alternate succession of the strips or
hedgerow croppings of perennial crops established along the contour of the
slope and an open space or alley which is devoted to annual agricultural crops.

Limitations of Multiple Cropping:

a. Allelopathy – refers to the detrimental effects of higher plants of one species
on the germination, growth or development of plants of another species.
b. Morphological differences – the difference in form or structure of the
component crops. The morphological difference is primarily related to “mutual
shading” which in turn is directly related to photosynthesis.

*Agroforestry - is a land-use system in which agricultural crops/and or

livestock and forest trees are raised on the same land either sequentially through
rotational use or simultaneous.
Crop rotation - is the growing of different crops in a definite order of succession
on the same land. The crops in rotation form a mutual and beneficial
allelopathic relationship.
 Classification of Philippine Climate
(CORONA CLASSIFICATION)

Type I. Pronounced wet and dry seasons – dry from November to May, wet
from June to October; Ilocos, Occidental Mindoro, Antique, Negros Occidental.

Type II. No dry season with pronounced maximum rain period – maximum
rain period is from November to January; Bicol, Samar, Leyte, Surigao, Agusan,
Davao.

Type III. No very pronounced maximum rain period with short dry season
lasting from one to three months – dry from February to April; Cagayan, Nueva
Vizcaya, Capiz, Cebu, Negros Oriental, Masbate, Mt. Province.

Type IV. No pronounced maximum rain period and no dry season – rainfall is
distributed throughout the year; Isabela, Bohol, Cotabato, Lanao, Zamboanga,
Bukidnon; most fruits are best grown in a Type IV climate where rainfall is evenly
distributed throughout the year.
 PLANT GROWTH REGULATION

Phytohormones - organic substances other than vitamins

and nutrients which are active in very minute amounts.
- formed in certain parts of the plant and which are
usually are translocated to other sites where they
promote, inhibit, or otherwise modify physiological,
biochemical and/or morphological processes.
- in general, PGRs are promotive at relatively low
concentrations but become inhibitory at relatively higher
concentrations .
- endogenous PGRs are called plant hormones or
phytohormones.
1. Auxin (IAA) - Generic term applied to growth regulators with the special capacity to
promote cell elongation.

Effects:
a. Promotes cell enlargement and cell division in the cambium in tissue culture.
b. Stimulates differentiation of phloem and xylem.
c. Stimulates root initiation in cuttings.
d. Mediates the tropic bending responses of shoots and roots to gravity, light and touch.
e. Promotes apical dominance.
f. Delays leaf senescence and leaf and fruit abscission.
g. Promotes fruit setting and fruit development in some plants.
h. Can also delay fruit ripening but may promote flowering in some plants ( Ex. bromeliads)
i. Induces femaleness in dioecious flowers (via ethylene)
j. Induction of parthenocarpic (seedless) fruit development. (Ex. tomato)
k. Popularly used as herbicides.

*Pathernocarpy
- Greek pathenos, Virgin and karpos, Fruit. Literally means virgin fruit.
- The production of fruit without fertilization. Fruit is therefore seedless.
2. Gibberellic Acid (GA) - belong to a family of compounds based on the
entgibberellane structure which are synthesize in
1. elongating shoots,
2. young leaves of developing apical buds,
3. developing seeds and fruits, and
4. apical regions of the roots - the major conduit for the non-polar transport of
GAs is the phloem.

Effects:
a. Stimulates stem elongation (may reverse physiological and genetic
dwarfism in plants).
b. Promotes bolting (rapid elongation of floral stem) in long day plants.
c. Induces germination of seeds.
d. Stimulates de novo synthesis of ɑ- amylase in germinating cereal grains.
e. Promotes fruit set and fruit growth in some fruits. (Ex. grapes)
f. Induces maleness in dioecious flowers of some species.
3. Cytokinin (CK) - adenine derivatives which have the capacity
to induce cell division in tissue culture.

Effects:
a. Regulates morphogenesis in cultured tissues (in synergy with
auxin).
b. Releases lateral buds from apical dominance.
c. Delays leaf senescence.
d. Promotes cotyledon and leaf expansion.
e. Promotes nutrient mobilization.
f. Enhances stomatal opening in some species.
g. Enhances accumulation of chlorophyll as it promotes the
conversion of etioplasts into chloroplast.
4. Ethylene - only phytohormone occurring in gas state.
- ethylene does not seem to be essential for normal vegetative growth but it is the only
hydrocarbon with a pronounced effect on plants.
- synthesized in most tissues in response to senescence and stresses.
- being a gas, ethylene moves by diffusion from the site of biosynthesis.

Effects:
a. Promotes ripening of climacteric fruits.
b. Induces epinasty
c. Induces lateral cell expansion
d. Formation of adventitious roots
e. Induces flowering in pineapple and other bromeliads
f. Enhances flower, fruits and leaf senescence
g. Induces femaleness in dioecious flowers of some species
h. Promotes shoot and root growth differentiation
i. Releases tissues/organs from dormancy
j. Promotes leaf and fruit abscission
k. Enhances flower opening in some species
5. Abscisic Acid (ABA) - synthesized from mevalonic acid in mature
leaves particularly in response to water stress. Seeds are also rich in
ABA which may be imported from the leaves.
- ABA is exported from leaves in the phloem. There are some evidences
that ABA may circulate to the roots in the phloem and then return to the
shoots in the xylem.

Effects:
a. Counteracts the effect of gibberellins on a-amylase synthesis in
germinating cereal grains.
b. Enhances stomatal closure (eg. during water stress)
c. Promotes leaf senescence
d. Promotes storage protein synthesis in seeds
e. Induces transport of photosynthates towards developing seeds and its
subsequent uptake by growing embryos
f. Induces and/or maintains dormancy in seeds and buds.
 PLANT LIFE PROCESSES
a. Photosynthesis- manufacture of sugars and its precursors by green plants in the presence of light and
chlorophyll.

Significance of Photosynthesis:
1. Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy in the form of organic nutrients.
2. Photosynthesis supplies oxygen to the atmosphere.
3. Photosynthesis produces food.

*Chloroplast - site of photosynthesis.

- involved in amino and fatty acids synthesis.
- provides space for temporary storage of starch.

*Chromoplast - responsible for the yellow, orange or red colors of many flowers and other parts of the
plants
Function: Attracts insects and other animals.

*Leucoplasts – non-pigmented plastids but once exposed to light, it may develop into chloroplasts.
a. Amyloplast – starch
b. Proteinplast – proteins
c. Elaeioplast - fats and oils
b. Respiration - defined as an enzyme-catalyzed reaction involving the transformation
of organic substrate into carbon dioxide and water accompanied by the release of
energy.
*the youger the leaves, the more respiration rate.
*the wetter the leaver, the more respiration rate.

c. Transpiration- is the loss from plants in the form of water vapor. This evaporative
process is dependent on energy, the heat of vaporization which is required to convert
water from liquid state to gaseous state.
- considered as “necessary evil”.
*it keeps cells hydrated.
*it maintains favorable turgor pressure for the transport of nutrients absorbed by the
roots from the soil.
*it serves as a cooling process.

D. Translocation- a long-distance transport of photoassimilates.

E. Assimilation- the process of utilizing food (photoassimilates and other solutes) for
growth
 Farm Tools, Implements and Equipments:

 Hand Tools- hand tools are usually light and are used without the help
of animals or machines. They are being used in performing farm
activities which involve small areas like school garden and home
garden. Ex. bolo, sickle, shovel, wheel barrow etc.
 Farm Implements- these are accessories which are being
pulled by working animals or mounted to machineries (hand
tractor, tractor) which are usually used in the preparation of
land. These are usually made of a special kind of metal. Ex.
Plow (native or disc plow), Harrow (native wooden harrow or
disc harrow), Rotavator.
o Farm Equipment- these are machineries used in crop
production. They are used in land preparation and in
transporting farm inputs and products. These equipment need
a highly skilled operator to use. Ex. Hand tractor, Four wheel
tractor, Water pump.
“DREAM and FANTASIZE your ideal
life, what it would look like and what it
would feel like and do everyday to
make it into REALITY.”

THANK YOU AND GOD BLESS!

#LPT