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Educational Statistics
Course Code 8614 Unit 1
Introduction to Statistics
Presentedby
Ghulam Ali Akbar
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Ph.D. Scholar
 Learning Objectives
After completion of unit, the students will be able to:
1. demonstrate basic understanding of statistics.
2. know characteristics & functions of statistics.
3. tell the importance and limitations of statistics.
4. briefly explain the application of statistics in
educational research.
5. distinguish descriptive and inferential statistics.
6. describe variables and levels of measurement.
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7. identify various statistical notations.

 Introduction
The word “statistics” is derived from the Latin word
“Status”, or the Italian word “Statista” mean a political
state or government.
The term statistics refers methods and rules for
organizing, summarizing, and interpreting information.
It is a way of getting information from data.
The process of collecting, displaying, analyzing, and
drawing conclusions from the data is called statistics.
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 Questions about Data
 Statistical data can be used to answer the questions like:
 What kind and how much data we need to collect?
 How should we organize and summarize the data?
 How can we analyze data and draw conclusion?
 How to assess strength of conclusion and evaluate
their uncertainty?

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 Concluded Remarks
 We can conclude the statistics in three words:
i) Design: Planning and carrying out research studies.
ii) Description: Summarizing and exploring data.
iii) Inferences: Making predictions and generalization
about phenomena represented by
the data.

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 Statistics in Broader Term
Statistics as Plural
Statistics are the aggregate of facts expressed in numerical
form. e. g., statistics of students, statistics of family members.
Statistics as Singular
It is the method adopted in the collection, presentation and
analysis of numerical data.
Statistics as plural of statistic
It means a numerical quantity calculated from sample
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 Statistics in Broader Term
Statistics as Plural of Statistic
It means a numerical quantity calculated from sample
observations.
A Comprehensive Definition of Statistics
Statistics is the science of systematic collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical data.

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 Types of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
The branch of statistics which deals with collection,
presentation and analysis of numerical data is called
descriptive statistics.
Inferential Statistics
The branch of statistics which deals with the procedure
of drawing inferences about the population’s parameter
is called inferential statistics.
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 Types of Statistics
M e a s u re m e n t

R e la tio n s h ip s D if fe r e n c e s

O n e P r e d ic t o r T w o P r e d ic to r s S e e n e x t s lid e
D e g r e e o f R e la tio n s h ip F o r m o f R e la t io n s h ip M u ltip le R e g r e s s io n
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C o r r e la tio n R e g r e s s io n
 Types of Statistics
D if f e re n c e s

T w o G ro u p s M u lt ip le G r o u p s

In d e p e n d e n t D ependen t In d e p e n d e n t G ro u p s

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T w o - s a m p le t R e la t e d S a m p le t A no va
Characteristics of Statistics
Statistics are aggregate of facts.
It is expressed in numerical form.
Statistics are collected for a pre-determined purpose.
Statistics are estimated according to a reasonable
standard of accuracy.
Statistics are collected in a systematic manner.
Multiple causes affect statistics
Statistics are capable of being placed in relation to each
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other
 Limitations of Statistics
Statistical laws are valid or true on the average.
Statistics deals only with quantitative data, Qualitative
data like hair color, beauty, and honesty cannot be
studied directly.
It deals with aggregate of facts. Single observation is not
the scope of statistics.
It cannot be handled without good understanding and
expertise.
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 Functions of Statistics
1. Topresent facts in a definite form
To simplify unmanageable and complex data
To use techniques for making comparisons
To enlarge individual experience
To provide guidance in the formulation of policies
To enable measurement of the magnitude of a
phenomenon 03/11/2021 14
 Importance of Statistics
We live in the information world where most information is
determined mathematically with help of statistics.
It means statistics keeps us informed about daily happening.
Weather forecasting is possible due to some computer
models based on statistical concepts to predict weather.
Researchers use statistical techniques to collect relevant data.
Statistics is frequently used by the researchers for data
collection procedures. 03/11/2021 15
 Importance of Statistics
Statistical techniques are key of how traders and businessmen
invest and make money.
Industry tools are used in quality testing by product managers.
Statistics play a big role in medical field. Before any drugs
prescribed, pharmacists show statistically valid rate of
effectiveness.
Similarly, statistics is behind all other medical studies. Doctors
predict diseases on the bases of statistical concepts
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 Descriptive Statistics
 Researchers use two categories of data– Descriptive Statistics
and Inferential Statistics.
 The initial collection of data to organize, display, and
summarize is the objective of descriptive statistics.
 Descriptive Statistics, as the name implies, describes the data.
 Descriptive statistics consist of methods for organizing and
summarizing information.
 It is especially useful when researcher finds it necessary to
handle interrelationship among more than two variables.
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 Descriptive Statistics
Collect data
e.g., Survey
Present data
e.g., Tables and graphs
Characterize data
e.g., The sample mean 03/11/2021 18
 Inferential Statistics
 Only summarizing and organizing data is not valid.
 Researcher often wishes to make inferences about a
population based on data he has obtained from a
sample. He uses inferential statistics.
 Inferential Statistics are techniques that allow
researcher to study samples and make generalizations
about the populations from which they are selected.
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 Inferential Statistics
 Estimation: e.g., Estimate the population mean weight using the sample mean
weight
 Hypothesis testing: e.g., Test the claim that the population mean weight is 120
pounds

Drawing conclusions about a large group of individuals

based on a smaller group. 03/11/2021 20
Difference between Statistics Branches
Statistics
The branch of mathematics that transforms data
into useful information for decision makers.

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Collecting, summarizing, Using data collected from a
presenting and analyzing small group to draw
data conclusions about a larger
group
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 Population and Sample
 Population of study is typically too large and it is
difficult for a researcher to observe each individual.
 By analyzing the results obtained from a sample, a
researcher hopes to make conclusion about population.
 Sample provides only limited information about the
population.
 Sample should be representative of the population. That
is, the general characteristics of the sample should be
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consistent with the characteristics of the population.

 Population and Sample


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 Variables Types
A variable is something that is likely to vary.
We can say that variable is quantity that assume any of values.
Variable is a feature that varies from one person to another.
This quantity increases or decreases over time and takes
different value in different situations or conditions.
We often measure or count it.
Examples of variables are height, weight, age, number of
siblings, business income and expenses, country of birth,
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 Variables Types
a

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 Variables Types
The variables with numerical information are called
quantitative or numerical variable and the variable with non-
numerical information are called qualitative or categorical
variable.
Activity (Identify Quantitative & Qualitative variables)

Examples of variables for human are height, weight, age, number

of siblings, business income and expenses, country of birth,
capital expenditure, marital status, eye color, gender, class
grades, and vehicle type. 03/11/2021 26
 Variables Types
Categorical (qualitative) variables have values that can
only be placed into categories, such as “yes” and “no.”
Numerical (quantitative) variables have values that
represent quantities.
Discrete variables arise from a counting process
Continuous variables arise from a measuring process

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 Variables Types
 C

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 Level of Measurement
Each variable uses different type of analysis and
measurement, requiring the use of different type of
measurement scale.
A scale of a variable gives certain structure to the
variable and also defines the meaning of the variable.
There are four types of measurement scales: nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio.
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 Measurement Scales
The scale of measurement of variables determines the
mathematical operations of variables. 
These mathematical operations, determine which statistics can
be applied to the data.
Interval Data: Temperature, Dates (data with an arbitrary zero
Ratio Data: Height, Weight, Age, Length (data that has an
absolute zero) Nominal Data: Male, Female, Race, Political
Party (categorical data that cannot be ranked) Ordinal Data:
Degree of Satisfaction at Restaurant (data that can be ranked).
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 Measurement Scales
 T

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 Measurement Scales
Nominal – categories
Gender, ethnicity, etc.
Ordinal – ordered categories
Rank in class, order of finish, etc.
Interval – equal intervals
Test scores, attitude scores, etc.
Ratio – absolute zero
Time, height, weight, etc.
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 Nominal Scales
Nominal scales are naming scales that represent categories
where there is no basis for ordering the categories.
Nominal Scale Examples
diagnostic categories
gender of the participants
classification based on discrete characteristics (hair
color) group affiliation (Republican, Democrat)
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 Nominal Scales Examples
the town people live in
a person's name
an arbitrary identification, including identification
numbers that are arbitrary
menu items selected
any yes/no distinctions 
most forms of classification (species of animals or type
of tree) 03/11/2021 34

location of damage in the brain

 Ordinal Scales
Ordinal scales involve categories that can be ordered
along a pre-established dimension. However, we have no
way of knowing how different the categories from one
another. We state the latter property by saying that we do
not have equal intervals between the items. Ranking
represents ordinal scales but do not know how different
each person is from the next person.
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 Ordinal Scales Examples
World cup teams
any rank ordering
class ranks
social class categories
order of finish in a race
Boards result positions
Race competitions 03/11/2021 36
 Interval Scales
Interval scales are similar to standard numbering scales
except they do not have a true zero. That means the
distance between successive numbers is equal, but the
number zero does NOT mean that there is none property
being measured. Many measures that involve
psychological scales, especially those normal
standardization (IQ), and temperature scales are assumed
to be interval scales of measurement.
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 Interval Scales Examples
Scores on scales that are standardized with an arbitrary mean.
Scores on scales that are known to not have a true zero (e.g.,
most temperature scales except for the Kelvin Scale)
Scores on measures where it is not clear that zero means none
of trait (math test)
Scores on most personality scales based on counting the
number of endorsed items
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 Ratio Scales
Ratio scales are the easiest to understand because they
are numbers as we usually think of them. The distance
between adjacent numbers is equal on a ratio scale and
the score of zero on the ratio scale means that there is
none of whatever is being measured. Most ratio scales
are counts of things.

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 Ratio Scales Examples
Timeto complete a task
Number of responses given in a specified time period
Weight, length, height of an object
Number of children in a family
Number of accidents detected
Number of errors made in a specified time period
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 Importance of Scales
The most important reason for making the distinction
between these measurement scales is that it affects the
statistical procedures used in describing and analyzing
your data.
There are dozens of examples of measures at each of
these levels of measurement, along with some exercises
help in understanding of these distinctions.
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Exercise of Measurement Scales
1. the number of questions asked by a customer during
shopping
2. the religious group that one affiliates with
3. the time taken to complete a checking task 
4. score on a 35-item scale of ambivalence
5. rank of a person salary within the company
6. rank order based on IQ score in sample
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Exercise of Measurement Scales
7. square feet of house or apartment
8. the size of cerebellum expressed in volume
9. the number of frustrated comments made during a
laboratory negotiation task
10. the time it taken to resolve a custody issue during court
ordered mediation
11. score on the Beck Depression Inventory (a pencil and
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paper depression scale)

Exercise of Measurement Scales
12. ratings of anger shown by couple involved in courtroom
testimony
13. number of pound lost during a six-week diet
14. proportion of weight lost during six-week diet
15. the heart rate of the participant 
16. the percent shift in heart rate over baseline during an
emotionally demanding task 
17. percent of errors made on a classification task
18. number of false alarm bell in a monitoring task
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Exercise of Measurement Scales
19. the types of grammatical errors made in a writing sample 
20. one's ice cream preference 
21. how quickly persons give up an impossible task that looks
like it should be possible
22. a student's NTS score 
23. percentile rank from an achievement test
24. type of categorization errors in sorting task
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Exercise of Measurement Scales
25. the pattern of scores on the MMPI personality
inventory
26. the age at which one went on his first date 
27. the number of children in your family 
28. the score on an anxiety sensitivity scale 
29. whether one has a pet 
30. the teacher's rankings of cooperativeness in the
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classroom 
Exercise of Measurement Scales

What is Your Score???

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Answer Key

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 Scientific Method
Scientific method is a process for explaining the world
to validate observations while minimizing observer bias.
It has many steps to describe the things we observe.
Its goal is to conduct research in a fair, unbiased and
repeatable manner.
Scientific method is a tool for: (a) forming and framing
questions, (b) collecting information to answer those
questions, and (c) revising old and developing new
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questions.
Step 1: Ask a Question
Asking a question is the first step of scientific method.
Good questions come from careful observations.
Our senses are a good source of observation. The
instruments like microscope or telescope are also used.
 These instruments extend the range of senses. During
the observation many questions come in the mind.
These questions derive the scientific method.
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Step 2: Define Problem
Define the Problem
The question raised during the observation led to state a
problem.
For Example:

Why is an alarming drop out rates at elementary level?

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Step 3: Framing Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a clear statement of what one expect to be
the answer of the question.
A hypothesis represents the best educated guess based
on the one’s observation and what he already knows.
A good hypothesis is testable. It provides some specifics
that lead to method of testing.
The hypothesis can also lead to predictions.
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Step 4: Conducting Experiment
After forming the hypothesis, it is tested.
There are different methods to test a hypothesis.
The most familiar method is to conduct an
experiment.

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Step 5: Analyzing Results
After the experiment (or whatever method is used to test
a hypothesis),
All information, that are collected, are analyzed.
Tables and graphs are used in this step to organize the
data.

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Step 6: Drawing Conclusion
On the basis of analysis, it is concluded whether or not
the results support the hypothesis.
If, in case, hypothesis is not supported by the data, the
researcher checks for errors.
Sometime he may have to reject the hypothesis and
make a new one.

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Step 7: Communicate Results
After any scientific investigation,
results should be communicated to let others
know
the new piece of knowledge.

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Statistical Notations
A

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 Basic Terms
VARIABLES
Variables are characteristics of an item or individual and are
what you analyze when you use a statistical method.
DATA
Data are the different values associated with a variable. Data is
plural its singular is Datum.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS
Data values are meaningless unless their variables have
operational definitions, universally accepted meanings that are
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clear to all associated with an analysis.

 Basic Terms
POPULATION
A population consists of all individuals about which you want to
draw a conclusion. The population is the “large group.”
SAMPLE
A sample is the portion of a population selected for analysis.
PARAMETER
A parameter is a numerical measure that describes a
characteristic of a population.
STATISTIC 03/11/2021 59

A statistic is a numerical measure that describes a sample.

 Self Assessment Activity
Q. 1 What do you understand by statistics?
Q. 2 What are the characteristics & functions of statistics?
Q. 3 Why is statistics important for educational research? Also
state its limitations.
Q. 4 How will you apply statistics in educational research?
Q. 5 How will you distinguish descriptive statistics from
inferential statistics?
Q. 6 What is a variable? Also write its types.
Q. 7 Briefly state the levels of measurement.
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