Mathematical

Reasoning

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 Mathematical Reasoning
We need p
p
 
 to
‡ determine whether a mathematical argument is
correct or incorrect and
‡ construct mathematical arguments.

Mathematical reasoning is not only important for

conducting 

 and 
 p

,


, but
also for 
 
 systems (drawing
logical inferences from knowledge and facts).

Ô
 3erminology
An 
p is a basic assumption about
mathematical structure that needs no proof.
- 3hings known to be true (facts or proven theorems)
- 3hings believed to be true but cannot be proved

We can use a 

 to demonstrate that a
particular statement is true. A proof consists of a
sequence of statements that form an argument.
3he steps that connect the statements in such a
 
..
sequence are the  

Cases of incorrect reasoning are called    .
 .

 3erminology
A

p is a statement that can be shown to be
true.

A pp is a simple theorem used as an

intermediate result in the proof of another
theorem.

A 

  is a proposition that follows directly
from a theorem that has been proved.

A 

 is a statement whose truth value is
unknown. Once it is proven, it becomes a theorem.
½
 roofs
A

p often has two parts
- Conditions (premises, hypotheses)
- conclusion

A 


 

 is to establish that
- If the conditions are true then the conclusion is true
- i.e., Conditions d conclusion is a tautology

Often there are missing pieces between

conditions and conclusion. Fill it by an argument
- Using conditions and axioms
- Statements in the argument connected by proper
rules of inference


 Rules of Inference
› 
 provide the justification of
the steps used in a proof.

One important rule is called p

 
 or the
p
. It is based on the tautology
 

p
.
(p º (p d q)) d q. We write it in the following
way:
3he two 

  p and p d q are
p written in a column, and the 
 

p d q below a bar, where means ´thereforeµ.
____
q
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 Rules of Inference

3he general form of a rule of inference is:

p1 3he rule states that if p1  p2  «

p2  pn are all true, then q is true as well.
.
.
.
pn Each rule is an established tautology of
____ p1 º p2 º « º pn d q
q
3hese rules of inference can be used in
any mathematical argument and do not
require any proof.
D
 Rules of Inference
p q
_____ p d q Modus
Addition _____ tollens
p
q
 p (contradiction)

pºq pdq
_____ Hypothetical
Simplification qdr
p _____ syllogism
pd r (chaining
chaining))
p
p
q
q Conjunction Disjunctive
_____ p
pºq _____ syllogism
q (resolution
resolution))
‰
Examples:
1. Ram is a mathematics graduate. 3herefore, Ram is either a
mathematics graduate or a computer science graduate.
Argument used is addition.
p : Ram is a mathematics graduate.
q : Ram is a computer Sc. graduate.
p
_____
p
q

2. Ram is a mathematics graduate and a computer science

graduate. 3herefore, Ram is a mathematics graduate.
Argument used is simplification.
p : Ram is a mathematics graduate.
q : Ram is a computer Sc. graduate.
pºq
_____
ü
p
Examples:
3. Ram is a mathematics graduate. Ram is a computer science
graduate. 3herefore, Ram is a mathematics graduate and a
computer science graduate.
Argument used is conjunction.
p : Ram is a mathematics graduate.
q : Ram is a computer Sc. graduate.
p
q
_____
pºq
4. If it is raining, then the pool will be closed. It is raining.
3herefore, the pool will be closed.
Argument used is modus ponens.
p : It is raining.
q : ool will be closed.
p
pd q
____ c
q
Examples:
5. If it is raining today, then the pool will be closed. 3he pool is not closed
today. 3herefore, it is not raining today.
Argument used is modus tollens.
p : It is raining today.
q : ool is close today.
q
pdq
_____
p
6. Ram is either a mathematics graduate or a computer science graduate.
Ram is not a mathematics graduate. 3herefore, Ram is a computer science
graduate.
Argument used is disjunctive syllogism.

p : Ram is a mathematics graduate.

q : Ram is a computer Sc. graduate.
p
q
p
_____ cc
q
Examples:
7. If I go for swimming, then I will stay in the sun too long. If
I stay in the sun too long, then I will sun burn. 3herefore, if I
go for swimming, then I will sun burn.

Argument used is hypothetical syllogism

p : I will go for swimming.

q : I will stay in the sun too long.
r : I will sun burn.
pdq
qdr
_____
pd r

cÔ
 Arguments
Just like a rule of inference, an p
consists
p
consists
of one or more hypotheses (or premises) and a
conclusion.
, if whenever all
We say that an argument is  ,
its hypotheses are true, its conclusion is also true.
However, if any hypothesis is false, even a valid
argument can lead to an incorrect conclusion.

roof: show that hypotheses d conclusion is true

using rules of inference

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 Arguments
r p 
´If 101 is divisible by 3, then 1012 is divisible by 9.
101 is divisible by 3. Consequently, 1012 is divisible
by 9.µ

Although the argument is  ,

, its conclusion is


,, because one of the hypotheses is false



(´101 is divisible by 3.µ).

If in the above argument we replace 101 with 102,

we could correctly conclude that 1022 is divisible
by 9.

c½
 Arguments
Which rule of inference was used in the last
argument?

p: ´101 is divisible by 3.µ

q: ´1012 is divisible by 9.µ
p
p d q Modus
_____ ponens
q

Unfortunately, one of the hypotheses (p) is false.

3herefore, the conclusion q is incorrect.
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 Arguments

J

 p 
´If it rains today, then we will not have a
barbeque today. If we do not have a barbeque
today, then we will have a barbeque tomorrow.
3herefore, if it rains today, then we will have a
barbeque tomorrow.µ

3his is a   argument: If its hypotheses are

true, then its conclusion is also true.

c£
 Arguments
Let us formalize the previous argument:
p: ´It is raining today.µ
q: ´We will not have a barbecue today.µ
r: ´We will have a barbecue tomorrow.µ
So the argument is of the following form:

pdq
qdr Hypothetical
______ syllogism
dr

cD
 Arguments
J

 p 

Ram is either intelligent or a good actor.

If Ram is intelligent, then he can count
from 1 to 10.
Ram can only count from 1 to 3.
3herefore, Ram is a good actor.

i: ´Ram is intelligent.µ
a: ´Ram is a good actor.µ
c: ´Ram can count from 1 to 10.µ

c‰
 Arguments
i: ´Ram is intelligent.µ
a: ´Ram is a good actor.µ
c: ´Ram can count from 1 to 10.µ

Step 1: c Hypothesis
Step 2: id c Hypothesis
Step 3: i Modus tollens Steps 1 & 2
Step 4: a
i Hypothesis
Step 5: a Disjunctive Syllogism
Steps 3 & 4

Conclusion: (´Ram is a good actor.µ)

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 Arguments

 

 p 

If you listen to me, you will pass DIM.

You passed DIM.
3herefore, you have listened to me.

Is this argument valid?

No,, it assumes ((p d q)º

No q)º q) d p.
3his statement is not a tautology. It is false if p
is false and q is true.

Ô
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements
ùx (x) Universal
__________
(c) if c
cU instantiation

(c) for an arbitrary c

cU Universal
___________________
ùx (x) generalization

x (x) Existential
______________________
(c) for some element c
cU instantiation

(c) for some element c

cU Existential
____________________
x (x) generalization
Ôc
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

r p 

Every UG student is a genius.

Ram is a UG student.
3herefore, Ram is a genius.

U(x): ´x is a UG student.µ
G(x): ´x is a genius.µ

ÔÔ
Rules of Inference for Quantified Statements

3he following steps are used in the argument:

Step 1: ùx (U(x) d G(x)) Hypothesis
Step 2: U(Ram) d G(Ram) Univ. instantiation
using Step 1
Step 3: U(Ram) Hypothesis
Step 4: G(Ram) Modus ponens
using Steps 2 & 3

ùx (x) Universal
__________
(c) if c
cU instantiation

Ô
 roving 3heorems
å
 


An implication p d q can be proved by showing
that if p is true, then q is also true.
r p  Give a direct proof of the theorem
´If n is odd, then n2 is odd.µ
  Assume that the hypothesis of this
implication is true (n is odd). 3hen use rules of
inference and known theorems of math to show
that q must also be true (n2 is odd).

Ô½
 roving 3heorems

n is odd.

3hen n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.

Consequently, n2 = (2k + 1)2.

= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

Since n2 can be written in this form, it is odd.

Ô
 roving 3heorems

 


An implication p d q is equivalent to its 

 


 q d p. 3herefore, we can prove p d q
by showing that whenever q is false, then p is also
false.
r p  Give an indirect proof of the theorem
´If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.µ
  Assume that the conclusion of this
implication is false (n is even). 3hen use rules of
inference and known theorems to show that p
must also be false (3n + 2 is even).
Ô£
 roving 3heorems
n is even.

3hen n = 2k, where k is an integer.

It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2

= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)

3herefore, 3n + 2 is even.

We have shown that the contrapositive of the

implication is true, so the implication itself is also
true (If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd).
ÔD
 roving 3heorems
Indirect roof is a special case of proof by
contradiction

Suppose n is even (negation

(negation of the conclusion).
conclusion).
3hen n = 2k, where k is an integer.
It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
3herefore, 3n + 2 is even.

However, this is a contradiction since 3n + 2 is given

to be odd, so the conclusion (n is odd) holds.

ԉ
 J

r p 



Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a
good actor.
If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count
from 1 to 10.
Ram performs well.
Ram can only count from 1 to 3.
3herefore, not everyone is both intelligent and a
good actor
(x): x performs well
I(x): x is intelligent
A(x): x is a good actor
C(x): x can count from 1 to 10

Ôü
 J

r p 



Hypotheses:
1. Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a good
actor.
ùx ((x) d I(x)
A(x))
2. If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count
from 1 to 10.
ùx (I(x) d C(x) )
3. Ram performs well.
(Ram)
4. Ram can only count from 1 to 3.
C(Ram)
Conclusion: not everyone is both intelligent and a good
actor
x(I(x) º A(x))
ùx(I(x)
ù


 J

r p 



Direct proof:
Step 1: ùx ((x) d I(x)
A(x))
Step 2: (ram) d I(Ram)
A(Ram) Univ. Inst. Step 1
Step 3: (Ram)
Step 4: I(Ram)
A(Ram)
Step 5: ùx (I(x) d C(x))
Step 6: I(Ram) d C(Ram)
Step 7: C(Ram)
Step 8: I(Ram)
Step 9: I(Ram)
A(Ram)
Step 10: (I(Ram) º A(Ram))
Step 11: x(I(x) º A(x))
Step 12: ù
ùxx (I(x) º A(x))
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Modus ponens Steps 2 & 3
Hypothesis
Univ. inst. Step5
Hypothesis
Modus tollens Steps 6 & 7
Addition Step 8
Equivalence Step 9
Exist. general. Step 10
Equivalence Step 11

Conclusion: ù
ùxx (I(x) º A(x))
A(x)),, not everyone is both
intelligent and a good actor.
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Mathematical
Induction

Ô
 Induction
3he  
p
p
 

 is a
useful tool for proving that a certain predicate
p .
is true for 
 p .

Suppose a statement is of the form ùn > n0 (n),

where n0 is a fixed integer.

3o show that the statement is true, the

 
p
p
 

 could be
used.


 Induction
If we have a propositional function (n), and we
want to prove that (n) is true for any natural
number n, we do the following:

‡ Show that (0) (or (1)) is true.

(basis step)
‡ Show that if (n) then (n + 1) for any n
nN.
(inductive step)
‡ 3hen (n) must be true for any n n
N.
(conclusion)

½
 Induction
r p 

Show that n < 2n for all positive integers n.

Let (n) be the proposition ´n < 2n.µ

1. Show that (1) is true.

(basis step)

(1) is true, because 1 < 21 = 2.


 Induction
2. Show that if (n) is true, then (n + 1) is
true.
(inductive step)

Assume that n < 2n is true.

We need to show that (n + 1) is true, i.e.
n + 1 < 2n+1

We start from n < 2n:

n + 1 < 2n + 1 Y 2n + 2n = 2n+1
3herefore, if n < 2n then n + 1 < 2n+1

£
 Induction
‡ 3hen (n) must be true for any positive
integer.
(conclusion)

n < 2n is true for any positive integer.

End of proof.

D
 Induction
J

r p 

1 + 2 + « + n = n (n + 1)/2

‡ Show that (1) is true.

(basis step)

For n = 1 we get 1 = 1. 3rue.

‰
 Induction
‡ Show that if (n) then (n + 1) for any n
n
N6
(inductive step)

1 + 2 + « + n = n (n + 1)/2
1 + 2 + « + n + (n + 1) = n (n + 1)/2 + (n + 1)
= (2n + 2 + n (n + 1))/2
= (2n + 2 + n2 + n)/2
= (2 + 3n + n2 )/2
= (n + 1) (n + 2)/2
= (n + 1) ((n + 1) + 1)/2
ü
 Induction

‡ 3hen (n) must be true for any n

n
N.
(conclusion)

1 + 2 + « + n = n (n + 1)/2 is true for all n

nN.

End of proof.

½
 Induction

3here is another proof technique that is

very similar to the principle of
mathematical induction.

It is called
 
  







.
p
p
 







½c
 Induction
3he second principle of mathematical induction:

‡ Show that (0) (or (1)) is true.

(basis step)
‡ Show that if (0) and (1) and « and (n),
then (n + 1) for any n
nN.
(inductive step)
‡ 3hen (n) must be true for any n n
N.
(conclusion)

½Ô
 Induction

Example: Show that every integer greater than

1 can be written as the product of primes.

‡ Show that (1) is true.

(basis step)
1 = 1 x 1.

‡Show that (2) is true.

2 = 1 x 2.

½
 Induction
‡ Show that if (2) and (3) and « and (n),
then (n + 1) for any n
nN. (inductive step)
3wo possible cases:
‡ If (n + 1) is p
p,, then obviously (n + 1) is true.

p

,, it can be written as the
‡ If (n + 1) is 
p


product of two integers a and b such that
2 Y a Y b < n + 1.
By the 



 




  ,, both a and b can be
written as the product of primes.
3herefore, n + 1 = awawb can be written as the
product of primes.
½½
 Induction

‡ 3hen (n) must be true for any n

n
N.
(conclusion)

End of proof.

We have shown that 



  can be written as the product of primes.

½