Lecture

Human Factors and Motivation

by
Tariq Kaleem
 Main Topics
 Human factors in motivation
 Motivation
 Theory X and theory Y
 Hierarchy of needs theory
 ERG theory
 Motivation-hygiene theory
 Expectancy theory
 Equity theory
 Goal setting theory
 Reinforcement theory
 Needs theory
 Special motivational techniques
 Job enrichment
 Systems and contingency approach
Understanding Management

 Management requires creation and maintenance

of an environment in which individuals work
together in groups toward the accomplishment of
common objectives.
 Managers should be capable of knowing and
taking advantage of human and motivating
factors so that the enterprise objectives are
achieved effectively and efficiently.
 Manager’s job is to recognize what motivates
people.
Human Factors in Managing
 Individuals working in an organization have needs
and objectives that are important to them.
 Organizations also have objectives.
 Through the function of leading, manager help
people see that they can satisfy their needs and
utilize their potential and at the same time contribute
to the aims of an enterprise.
 Managers should thus have an understanding of (1)
the multiplicity of roles assumed by people, (2) the
individuality of people, (3) the importance of personal
dignity and (4) the consideration of whole person.
Motivation

 Human motivations are based on needs,

whether consciously or unconsciously felt.
 Motivation is the managerial process of
satisfying subordinates drives, desires, needs,
wishes and similar forces, in order to, induce
them act in a desired manner to achieve
organizational goals.
Need-Want-Satisfaction Chain
 Motivation can be looked as a chain process.
 Felt needs give rise to wants or goals sought
which cause tensions (i.e., unfulfilled desires),
which give rise to actions toward achieving goals,
which finally result in satisfaction.
 This chain is somewhat oversimplified.
 Needs are not independent of a person's environment,
which has a major influence on his perception of needs.
 The process does not always operate as described.
Needs do cause behavior, but needs may also result
from behavior.
Complexity of Motivation
 An individual's motives may be quite complex
and often confusing.
 A person may be motivated by a desire for
economic goods and services (e.g., groceries, a
better house or a better' car) and these desires
may be complex and conflicting (i.e., should he
buy a house or a car).
 Simultaneously, the individual may want
something else, such as self-esteem, higher
status, a feeling of accomplishment or relaxation.
Motivators

 Things that induce an individual to perform.

 These are the identified rewards or incentives
that shape the drive to satisfy needs and also
help in reconciling and prioritizing needs.
Difference between Motivation and
Satisfaction
 Motivation refers to the drive and effort to
satisfy a want or goal.
 Satisfaction refers to the contentment
experienced when a want is satisfied.
Major Theories
 There are different views and assumptions
about the human nature and motivation.
 McGregor’s theory X and theory Y
 Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory
 Herzberg's two-factor theory
 Vroom's expectancy theory
 Porter and Lawer’s model
 Adam’s equity theory
 Skiner’s reinforcement theory
 McClelland's needs theory.
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

 It is an early behavioral model in which nature

of people has been expressed in two sets of
assumption, 'theory X" and "theory Y."
 According to McGregor, managing must start
with the basic question of how managers see
themselves in relations to others.
Theory X Assumptions
 Average human beings have an inherent dislike of
work and will avoid it if they can
 Because of this human characteristic of disliking the
work, most people must be coerced, controlled,
directed and threatened with punishment to get
them to put forth adequate effort toward the
achievement of organizational objectives
 Average human beings prefer to be directed, wish
to avoid responsibility, have relatively little
ambition and want security at all
 Theory Y Assumptions
 The expenditure of physical effort in work is as natural as play or rest
 External control and the threat of punishment are not the only
means for producing effort toward organizational objectives, people
will feel self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to
which they are committed
 The degree of commitment to the objectives is in proportion to the
size of the rewards associated with their achievement
 Average human beings learn under the proper conditions, not only to
accept responsibility but also to seek it
 The capacity to exercise a relatively high degree of imagination,
ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is
widely, not narrowly, distributed in population
 Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual
potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized.
Comments

 The theory X is pessimistic and rigid; and,

control is primarily external.
 Theory Y is optimistic, dynamic and flexible;
control is self-directed, by the integration of
individual and organizational needs.
 These assumptions are not suggestions or
prescriptions; should be tested against the
reality.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 The basic human needs placed by Maslow in

an ascending order are:
 Physiological needs
 Security or safety needs
 Affiliation or acceptance needs
 Esteem needs
 Need for self-actualization.
The Needs
 Physiological The basic needs for sustaining human life itself, such
as food, water, shelter etc. Maslow said that until these needs are
satisfied to some extent, other needs would not motivate people.
 Security and safety To be free of physical danger and for the fear
of losing a job, property, food or shelter.
 Affiliation or acceptance To belong or to be accepted by other.
 Esteem Such satisfactions as power, prestige, status and self-
confidence. According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their
need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by
themselves and by others.
 Self-actualization The desire to become what one is capable of
becoming, i.e., to maximize one's potential and to accomplish
something. Maslow regards this as the highest need in this
hierarchy.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

 Maslow's need approach was considerably

modified by Herzberg, who identified two
groups of factors.
 maintenance or hygiene factors.
 motivators
Maintenance or Hygiene Factors or
Dissatisfiers
 Related with job context and include:
 Company policy and administration
 Supervision
 Working conditions
 Interpersonal relations
 Salary
 Status
 Job security
 Personal life.
 Correspond to lower three levels in Maslow's need hierarchy
 Their absence in a work environment yield dissatisfaction. Their
presence yields no dissatisfaction.
 No dissatisfaction means lack of dissatisfaction, it does not mean
satisfaction.
Motivators or Satisfires
 Related with job contents and include:
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Challenging work
 Responsibility
 Advancement
 Growth in the job.
 Correspond to upper two levels in Maslow's need hierarchy.
 Their presence in a work environment yield satisfaction. Their
absence yields no satisfaction.
 No satisfaction means lack of satisfaction, it does not mean
dissatisfaction.
Vroom's Expectancy Theory
 People's motivation toward doing anything will be
determined by the value they place on the outcome of their
effort (whether positive or negative), multiplied by the
confidence they have that their efforts will materially aid in
achieving a goal.
 It may be stated as Force = Valance x Expectancy.
 force is the strength of a person's motivation,
 valence is the strength of an individual's preference for an
outcome and
 expectancy is the probability that a particular action will lead to a
desired outcome.
 This theory seems to be more realistic and fits the concepts
of harmony of individual and organizational objectives.
 Porter and Lawer's Model
 Also known as effort­-performance-reward-satisfaction system.
 Built in large on expectancy theory; more complete model of
motivation applied to managers primarily.
 The amount of effort (the strength of motivation and energy
exerted) depends on the value of a reward plus the amount
of energy a person believes is required and the probability of
receiving the reward.
 The perceived effort and probability of actually getting a
reward are, in turn, influenced by the record of actual
performance.
 Actual performance in a job (the doing of tasks or meeting of
goals) is determined principally by effort expanded.
Porter and Lawer's Model (contd.)
 It is also greatly influenced by an individual's ability (knowledge
and skills) to do the job by his perception of what the required
task is (the extent to which the person understands the goals,
required activities and other elements of a task).
 Performance, in turn, is seen as leading to intrinsic rewards (such
as sense of accomplishment or self-actualization) and extrinsic
rewards (such as working conditions and status).
 These rewards, tempered by what an individual sees as equitable,
lead to satisfaction.
 Performance also influences sensed equitable rewards. What the
individual sees as a fair reward for effort will necessarily affect the
satisfaction derived.
 Likewise, the actual value of rewards will be influenced by
satisfaction.
Adam's Equity (or Inequity) Theory

 Refers to an individual's subjective judgments about

the fairness of the reward he got, relative to inputs
(such as effort, experience and education), in
comparison with the rewards of others.
 It may be stated as:

Outcomes by a person = Outcomes by other person

Inputs by a person) Inputs by another person

 Inequitable, equitable and more than equitable

reward will, respectively, lead to reduced, same and
more output.
Skinner's Positive Reinforcement or
Behavior Modification Theory
 Individuals can be motivated by proper design of their work
environment and praise for their performance; punishment for poor
performance produces negative results.
 Emphasizes analysis of the work situation to determine what
causes workers to act the way they do.
 Requires initiating of changes to eliminate troublesome areas and
obstructions to performance, setting specific goals with workers
participation and assisting and controlling through prompt and
regular feedback of the results and expansion of communication.
 Performance improvements are rewarded with recognition and
praise.
 Even when performance does not equal goals, ways are found to
help them and praise them for good things they do: Closer to the
requirements of good management.
 McClelland's Needs Theory
 Based on three needs:
 the need for power n/PWR
 the need for affiliation n/AFF
 the need for achievement n/ACH
 All three are of particular relevance to management, since all must be
recognized to make an organized enterprise work well.
 People with a high need of power: great concern for exercising influence and
control; seek positions of leadership.; frequently good conversationalists,
often argumentative; forceful, outspoken, hardheaded and demanding.
 People with a high need of affiliation: derive pleasure from being loved and
tend to avoid the pain of being rejected by a social group; enjoy and
maintain pleasant social relationships.
 People with a high need for achievement: an intense desire for success and
an equally intense fear of failure.
Special Motivational Techniques

 Using money
 Encouraging participation
 Improving the quality of working life (QWL)
Money

 Can never be overlooked as a motivator.

 Important in the form of wages, piecework or
any other incentive pay, bonuses, stock
options, company-paid insurance, or any of
the other things that may be given to people
for performance.
 More than its monetary value, also means
status or power.
Participation

 Of people who are in the center of an

operation and have knowledge of both
problems and solutions to them yields
motivation through:
 Recognition
 affiliation and acceptance
 accomplishment
QWL Program
 A systems approach to job design and a
promising development in the broad area of job
enrichment, combined with grounding in the
socio-technical systems approach to
management.
Socio-Technical Systems Approach to
Management
 Technical system has great effect on social
system (i.e., personal attitudes and group
behavior).
 It focuses on production, office operation and
other areas with close relationships between
the technical system and people.
Job enrichment

 Aimed at making jobs challenging and

meaningful.
 Somewhat related to Herzberg's two-factor
theory, in which factors such as challenge,
achievement, recognition and responsibility
are seen as the real motivators.
Job Enlargement

 Making a job more varied by removing the

difficulties associated with performing
repetitive operations.
 It is enlarging the scope of the job by adding
similar tasks without enhancing the
responsibility.
System Contingency Approach

 Complexity of motivation requires it.

 It takes into account the environmental
factors, including the organizational climate.
 At times organizational climate may be curb
motivation;
 at other times it may arouse motivation.
 Leaders and managers can design a climate
that will arouse or reduce motivation.