Biologi Laut

Marine Plants
 Overview

• Mangroves are groups of trees, palms and shrubs that grow in the
estuarine margins of 124 countries around the world (
Duke et al., 2006; FAO, 2007), and cover between 150,000 and 188,000 km2
(Barbier, 2015; Costanza et al., 2014). Inhabitants of mangrove forests
include the Royal Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), crocodiles and myriad
birds, reptiles, amphibians, crustaceans and, of course, humans.
• Mangrove represent large variety of plant families which are adapted
to tropical intertidal ecosystem
• Group constitutes : major, minor and associate
• Feature of major mangrove : occur in mangal, form pure stand,
morphological specialization, mechanism for salt excretion, isolated
from terrestrial relatives
• Humans use mangroves in direct (e.g. building materials, food and
medicinal purposes) and indirect ways (e.g. carbon sequestration,
protection from extreme weather events, fish nurseries and land
building) (
Barbier, 2015; Donato et al., 2011; Kainuma et al., 2010; Lee et al., 201
4
). These uses and services make mangroves worth up to
$194,000 ha−1 yr−1 (Costanza et al., 2014).
• Avicennia marina, a very common mangrove plant shows various adaptive features for
survival under high salinity. a Shows a general view of cross section of leaf. b Shows
prominent multicellular salt glands. c Shows a thick cuticular layer on the dorsal surface of
leaf to minimize water loss. d Shows scanning electron micrography of a wrap of capitate
hairs on the ventral surface of leaf, an another feature to minimize water loss. edc
epidermal cells, ch capitat hairs, cu cuticle, sg salt glands. Bars: a-200 μm, b-50 μm, c-30
μm (Naskar 2014)
• Differential salinity and tidal inundation duration invokes
different adaptive mechanism even between closely
related species. Sonneratia apetala a species growing on
the mud flat of rivers of Sundarban shows sunken stomata
(a), while S. caseolaris, a species growing in higher
elevation shows exposed stomata (b) (Naskar 2014)
• Salt secretion through the salt gland. a Salt secretion
through the leaves of Avicennia marina. b Salt crystals
under scanning electron microscope (Naskar 2014)
Conceptual model and
conceptual maps of the
generalized trend of dissolved
oxygen inside mangrove forests.
• The conceptual model (A)
describes low DO levels on
the left, and high DO levels on
the right. Conceptual maps
have been constructed based
on the model to visually
represent two generalized
extreme outcomes;
• B = the left-hand path of the
model (neap tides), and
• C = the right-hand path of the
model (spring tides).
Intermediate levels of DO
have more variable outcomes,
but generally lie within the
extreme conditions. The
factor Time of the Day is a
categorical variable derived
from time after sunrise.
 1,7 juta ha kawasan dalam
4,2 juta ha (44,73 %) dari
(87,50 %) 3,8 juta ha
dari 4,8 juta rusak kawasan luar
ha rusak

• Tahun 1982-1993 telah terjadi pengurangan hutan mangrove seluas

513.670 ha atau 46.697 ha per tahunnya (Gunawan dan Anwar,
2005).
• Menurut Asian Wetland Bureau luas hutan mangrove Indonesia
hanya tersisa 2,5 juta ha.
• Pada umumnya hutan mangrove pantai lebih tebal dibandingkan
dengan hutan mangrove sungai, akan tetapi mangrove sungai lebih
panjang masuk ke daratan mengikuti aliran sungai sampai batas
salinitas yang tidak berpengaruh pada tumbuhan jenis mangrove.
• Fungsi mangrove terhadap suplai energi keperairan pantai dapat
dilihat dari perannya dalam proses penguraian melepaskan unsur-
unsur mineral seperti nitrogen, fosfor, dan unsur esensial zat hara
lainnya. Unsur mineral ini merupakan kunci kesuburan dalam transfer
energi dan rantai makanan.
• Detritus tumbuh-tumbuhan atau detritus organik tersebut
merupakan sumber bahan makanan bagi organisme di atasnya,
seperti berbagai jenis zooplankton, udang, ikan, kepiting, moluska,
nematoda, dan amphipoda (Bismarkdan Sawitri, 2010).
• Hutan bakau mampu menahan sedimen yang terlarut dari sungai dan
memperkecil erosi atau aberasi pantai. Erosi di pantai Marunda yang tidak
ada mangrove selama dua bulan mencapai 2 m, sementara yang ada
mangrove hanya 1 m (Sediadi, 1991).
• Dalam kaitannya dengan kecepatan pengendapan tanah di hutan mangrove,
Anwar (1998) dengan mengambil lokasi penelitian di Suwung (Bali) dan Gili
Sulat (Lombok), menginformasikan laju akumulasi tanah adalah 20, 6
kg/m2/th atau setara dengan 14,7 mm/th (dominasi S. alba); 9,0 kg/m2/th
atau 6,4 mm/th (dominasi R. apiculata); 6.0 kg/m2/th atau 4,3 mm/th (bekas
tambak); dan 8,5 kg/m2/th atau 6,0 mm/th (mangrove campuran).
• Dengan demikian, rata-rata akumulasi tanah pada mangrove Suwung 12,6
kg/m2/th atau 9 mm/th, sedang mangrove Gili Sulat 8,5 kg/m2/th atau 6,0
mm/th. Data lain menunjukkan adanya kecenderungan terjadinya
pengendapan tanah setebal antara 6 sampai 15 mm/ha/th atas kehadiran
mangrove. Informasi semacam ini sangat diperlukan guna mengantisipasi
permasalahan sosial pada lahan tersebut yang timbul pada masa mendatang.
• Luasan kawasan mangrove
dengan produksi
perikanan budidaya
memiliki hubungan
signifikan. Semakin
meningkat luasan kawasan
mangrove maka produksi
perikanan pun turut
meningkat dengan
membentuk persamaan:
• Y = 0,06 + 0,15 X
• Dalam persamaan di atas,
Y merupakan produksi
tangkapan dalam ton/th,
dan X merupakan luasan
mangrove dalam ha
(Ditjen Bina Pesisir. 2004).
• Hal ini juga diungkapkan oleh Hilman (2007), bahwa nilai kompensasi rata-rata
karbon tidak sama pada setiap daerah tetapi tergantung kepada jenis tanaman,
luas lahan, dan lokasi lahan.
• Lembaga Pengkajian dan Pengembangan Mangrove, melaporkan bahwa nilai
manfaat hutan bakau dalam menyerap karbon dioksida adalah sebesar Rp
6.489.000.000/tahun (LPPM, 2006).
• Kegiatan silvofishery berupa “empang parit”
pada kawasan hutan mangrove, terutama di
areal Perum Perhutani telah dimulai sejak
tahun 1978. Pada awalnya empang parit ini
hanya berupa parit selebar 4 m yang
disisihkan dari tepi areal kegiatan reboisasi
hutan mangrove, sehingga luasnya hanya 10-
15 persen dari total area garapan. Jarak
tanam 3X2 m2, dengan harapan 4-5 tahun
pada akhir kontrak, tajuk tanaman sudah
saling menutup.
• Sejak tahun 1990 dibuat sistem pola terpisah
(komplangan) dengan 20 persen areal untuk
budidaya ikan dan 80 persen areal untuk
hutan dengan pasang surut bebas. Dari
sistem silvofishery semacam ini dengan
pemeliharaan bandeng dan udang liar dapat
dihasilkan keuntungan pada masyarakat.
• Pokok kajian sosial ekonomi diantaranya mencakup empang parit di areal
yang semula merupakan 20 persen luasan wilayah yang dikerjakan dan
80 persen selebihnya merupakan mangrove, cenderung berubah
menjadi sebaliknya dan bahkan dijumpai areal pertambakannya melebihi
90 persen areal.
• Hasil analisis ekonomi usaha tambak menunjukkan bahwa tambak
komplangan (Rp 32.529.643/ha/tahun) lebih menguntungkan
dibandingkan tambak empang parit (Rp 14.387.500/ha/tahun).
• Penambahan luas garapan empang parit berbanding lurus dengan
pendapatan bersihnya, namun ternyata tidak merupakan kelipatannya.
Pendapat petani penggarap 1 ha = Rp 14.195.833/ha/tahun, 2 ha =
Rp16.846.923/ha/tahun, 5 ha = Rp 21.445.000/ha/tahun.
• Berkaitan dengan rehabilitasi mangrove, sebagian besar
masyarakat petambak lebih menginginkan penanaman hanya
pada pematang, sehingga penanaman rehabilitasi di tengah
tambak banyak yang mengalami kegagalan.
• Masalah yang timbul dalam pengelolaan kawasan mangrove
rehabilitasi yang lain adalah hampir seluruh kawasan mangrove di
pantura telah digarap menjadi tambak oleh masyarakat tidak
terkecuali areal green belt dengan kondisi mangrove dengan
tegakan 0-400 pohon per ha.
• Penguasaan lahan dipindah-tangankan dengan harga mencapai
Rp 20 juta/ha untuk areal bebas pohon mangrove dan Rp 10 juta
- Rp 15 juta untuk areal yang ada pohon mangrove.
Interaction of electromagnetic energy with a single leaf (A) and a stack of leaves
(B) (Adapted from Jong and Van der Meer, 2001, p. 118). The higher the number
of stacked leaves, the greater the NIR and SWIR energy captured by the sensor.
• Holdfast: The root
like structure that
attaches kelp to the
seafloor.
• Stipe: The stem like
structure of kelp.
• Blade: The leaf like
structure of the kelp.
• Air Bladder: The
balloon like
structure that is
attached to the
blades of the kelp to
keep the kelp
buoyant so it can
gather more
sunlight.
• Seaweeds are macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. They are generally
benthic, being anchored to the bottom of the ocean or to solid structures.
• Algae (singular alga), a name derived from the Latin word for seaweed, are a
large and diverse group of photosynthetic, eukaryotic, plant-like organisms
that use chlorophyll in capturing light energy, but lack characteristic plant
structures such as leaves, roots, flowers, vascular tissue, and seeds. Although
they have historically been regarded as simple plants, they are generally
classified in the kingdom Protista, rather than Plantae.
• Seaweed can be one of several types of algae: brown algae, red algae, or
green algae. Most of the seaweeds of the warm oceans are red algae. They
absorb the deep penetrating blue light, allowing them to exist deeper than
other algae.
• Seaweeds themselves have many forms,
including those that appear as if they
are terrestrial plants with leaves and
stems, looking like moss, mushrooms,
leaf lettuce, or even a palm tree. Some
are quite large: the multicellular giant
kelp reaches 60 meters in length.

• Various seaweeds serve as a habitat

and food for other sea creatures. For
humans, seaweed also can be used
as food and as fertilizer. Red algae
are a source of agar, a gelatinous
polysaccharide that is used as a
culture medium for microbiological
work, as well as vegetarian gelatin
substitute, a thickener for soups, in
jellies, ice cream, and so forth.
• Brown algae
• The top of a kelp forest in Otago, New Zealand
• The Phaeophyta, or brown algae (Class Phaeophyceae,
Division Heterokontophyta or Phaeophyta, Kingdom
Protista or Plantae or Chromalveolata), are a large group of
multicellular, mostly marine algae, and include many
seaweeds of colder Northern Hemisphere waters.
• One example of brown algae seaweed is Sargassum, which
creates unique habitats in the tropical waters of the
Sargasso Sea. This is one of the few areas where a large
biomass of brown algae may be found in tropical waters.
• Red algae
• The red algae (Phylum Rhodophyta, from
Greek rhodon = rose + phyton = plant, thus red
plant) are a large group of mostly multicellular,
marine algae, including many notable
seaweeds. Red algae are a traditional part of
European and Asian cuisine and are used to
make other products like agar, carrageenans,
and other food additives.
• Green algae
• The Chlorophyta, or green algae (Division Chlorophyta), include
about eight thousand species of mostly aquatic organisms. Like
the land plants (Bryophyta and Tracheophyta), green algae
contain chlorophylls a and b, and store food as starch in their
plastids. They contain both unicellular and multicellular species.
• While most species live in freshwater habitats, and a large
number in marine habitats, other species are adapted to a wide
range of environments.
• Few are actually seaweeds, however, either because they are
freshwater or microscopic. The sea lettuces (genus genus) are a
notable exception.
• Kelp are large seaweeds belonging to the brown
algae and are classified in the order Laminariales.
There are about 30 different genera. Kelp grows in
underwater forests (kelp forests) in clear, shallow
oceans. They require nutrient rich water below
about 20 °C.
• Kelp is known for its high growth rate and is the
largest seaweed. Macrocystis, a member of the
Laminariales, may reach 60 meters in length and
grows up to 30 centimeters per day.
• In Indonesia, the land area with aquaculture potential is
estimated to be around 11.81 million ha, of which 8.36
million ha have marine culture potential (MMAF and JICA,
2009). Aquaculture production showed a growth rate of
20.14% within 5 years from 2001 to 200 (Nurdjana, 2006).
The production of farmed seaweed in Indonesia gradually
increased every year reaching 1,728,475 tonnes in 2007
(Dahuri, 2004; MMAF and
• JICA, 2009). According to Mira et al. (2006), there are many
benefits realizable from seaweed farming such as: (1) being
an environmentally friendly activity, (2) opening job
opportunities, (3) improvement of fishermen’s income and
(4) contributing to foreign exchange revenue.
• Pakker et al. (1995) suggested that tropical macroalgae
are the most stenothermal macroalgae of any
biogeographical region; their growth generally reaching a
peak between 25 and 30C, with those restricted to the
tropical westernAtlantic surviving a total variation of only
10/13C.
• Tropical macroalgae are very efficient nutrient users that
are capable of taking advantage of nutrient pulses
through surge uptake mechanisms. Additionally, they can
store and recycle nutrients in their tissues for extended
periods of time (Fong et al. 2003)
• A recent investigation of tropical marine macroalgae collected
from Belize at depths of 0.3–26 m depths showed that UVR
caused an additional decrease of photosynthetic performance
during high light stress which varied according to species, depth
of growth, and UV penetration at the site of collection (Hanelt
and Roleda 2009 ; see also Chap. 1 By Hanelt and Figueroa).
• However, this same study also provided evidence that UVB
radiation may not only cause negative effects on cellular
processes of seaweeds but may also support recovery
processes in high UVR adapted seaweeds (Hanelt and Roleda
2009)
• Light in this way plays a structuring role in the
distribution of tropical macroalgae. Rhodophytes,
like crustose coralline algae, are common throughout
all reef zones, from the intertidal to 80–90m deep,
where the light intensity has been estimated at
~0.2% of the surface radiation and even as deep as
268 m in the Bahamas (Littler et al. 1985, 1986).
• On Curaçao sparse algal turfs reach their lower limit
around 65 m, where PAR levels are as low as 1% of
that found at the surface (Van den Hoek et al. 1978).
SEAGRASS
• Lamun adalah tumbuhan berbunga (Angiospermae) yang
hidup terendam dalam kolom air dan berkembang dengan
baik di perairan laut dangkal dan estuari.
• Tumbuhan lamun terdiri dari daun dan seludang, batang
menjalar yang biasanya disebut rimpang (rhizome), dan akar
yang tumbuh pada bagian rimpang (Gambar 1).
• Di Indonesia terdapat 13 jenis lamun (Tabel 1) yang tersebar
di hampir seluruh perairan Indonesia, dengan perkiraan luas
30.000 Km2 (Nienhuis, 1993; Kuo, 2007).
• Satu jenis lamun atau beberapa jenis lamun umumnya
membentuk hamparan luas yang disebut Komunitas Padang
Lamun. Kemudian, komunitas padang lamun berinteraksi
dengan biota yang hidup didalamnya dan dengan lingkungan
sekitarnya membentuk Ekosistem Padang Lamun.
• Ekosistem lamun umumnya berada di daerah pesisir pantai
dengan kedalaman kurang dari 5 m saat pasang.
• Namun, beberapa jenis lamun dapat tumbuh lebih dari kedalaman
5 m sampai kedalaman 90 m selama kondisi lingkungannya
menunjang pertumbuhan lamun tersebut (Duarte, 1991).
• Ekosistem lamun di Indonesia biasanya terletak di antara
ekosistem mangrove dan karang, atau terletak di dekat pantai
berpasir dan hutan pantai.
• Penurunan luas padang lamun sudah terjadi sejak awal abad 20. Sebelum
tahun 1940, luas padang lamun di seluruh dunia mengalami penurunan
sebesar 0,9 % per tahun. Laju penurunan meningkat menjadi 7 % per tahun
pada tahun 1990-an.
• Menurut Waycott et al. (2009), sebaran padang lamun global telah hilang
sekitar 29% sejak abad ke-19.
• Penyebab utama hilangnya padang lamun secara global adalah penurunan
kecerahan air, baik karena peningkatan kekeruhan air maupun kenaikan
masukan zat hara ke perairan.
• Pada daerah sub tropis (temperate), kehilangan padang lamun disebabkan
oleh alih fungsi wilayah pesisir menjadi kawasan industri, pemampatan
(deposition) udara, dan banjir dari daratan.
• Penyebab utama hilangnya padang lamun di daerah tropis adalah
peningkatan masukan sedimen ke perairan pesisir akibat pembalakan hutan
didaratan dan penebangan mangrove yang bersamaan dengan pengaruh
langsung dari kegiatan budi daya perikanan.
• Global seagrass distribution shown as blue points and polygons
(data from 2005 UNEP-WCMC) and geographic bioregions: 1.
Temperate North Atlantic, 2. Tropical Atlantic, 3. Mediterranean,
4. Temperate North Pacific, 5. Tropical Indo-Pacific, 6. Temperate
Southern Oceans.
• Global seagrass diversity and distribution. Shades of green
indicate numbers of species reported for an area; blue points
and polygons indicate documented reports of seagrass
occurrence (from 2005 UNEP-WCMC).
THANK YOU
Conceptual diagrams of different
processes in mangrove forests
(adapted from
Kennedy et al., 2014; Lewis et al.,
2016a
). Here, a mangrove ecosystem
shows
• (A) cyclical phenological
changes,
• (B) an abrupt disturbance and
• (C) a recovering phase.
Conceptual figure of
mangroves at high
and low tides.
• Panel (A) simulates
a Landsat pixel of a
mangrove forests
during high tide.
Here, the water in
the background
absorbs the NIR
and the forest
canopy reflects it
lowering the
reflectance of the
pixel in all
wavelengths.
• Panel (B) simulates
the same pixel
during low tide;
overall, more
radiation is
reflected in this
scenario across all
wavelengths.
• Panel (C) compares
the spectral
signature of pixels
(A) and (B).
• Number of
Landsat, ASTER
images used to
study mangroves
since 2001.
*Number of
images not
explicitly
reported.
Computing Services For Geospatial Analysis
Main Reasons for Code Review according to Petre and Wilson (2014).