LEARNING SCIENCE

UNIT 4
BY
ATIKA ABID
 INTRODUCTION
Objectives
* Define and understand the meaning of learning
* Know about the outcomes of learning
* Understand reception and relational learning
* Differentiate between rote and meaningful learning.
* Apply meaningful learning model in the class room.
* Know and understand the constructivist approach to learning.
* Gain insight about misconceptions in science.
4.1 Learning

Learning defined as a change in behavior. (1960s—1970s)

In the view of Kingsley and R. Garry (1957)
“learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changes
through practice and training”.
Kimble (1961) states,
“learning is relatively permanent change in behavioural potentiality
that occurs as a result of reinforced practice”.
Comprehensive definition of Learning

The term learning is put to multiple uses:

1. The acquisition and mastery of what is already known about
something.
2. The extension and clarification. It is difficult to summarize
learning in a single phrase or sentence, which will encompass all
situations. Here learning will be seen as active, goal directed
construction of meaning.
(The emphasis is on certain important aspect like motivation
which help product learning.)
Factors affecting learning

(1) Motivation
(2) Interests and attitudes
(3) Poor communication
(4) Remembering and forgetting
(5) Difficulty of teaching material
(6) Teaching and learning strategies.
4.1.1 Outcomes of Learning
Bringing desirable changes in behaviour
Attaining of teaching-learning objectives
Attaining of proper growth and development
Attaining balanced development of personality
Attaining proper adjustment
Realizing of the goals of life
4.1.2 THEORIES OF LEARNING

Biggo (1982) and Mangal (1991) :- classified theory into two families.
1. Conditional theories of behaviorist family
2. Cognitive theories of the Gestalt-field family.

Merriam and Caffarella (1991) Classified learning theories into four orientations:-
1. behaviorist 2. cognitive 3. humanist 4. Social learniang.
 Orientations to Learning Theories
  Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social/Situated Cybernetic
Learning
Theorists Thorndike, Pavlov, Koffka,Kohler, Rousseau, Bandura, Weiner,
Watson, Wertheimer, Pestaloozzi, Rotter, Shannon,
Guthrie, Lewin, Froebel, Vigotsky, Miller,
Hull, Reigeluth, Neill, Brown, Gibson,
Tolman, Piaget,Ausubel, Rogers and Argyris, Landa,
And Skinner. Bruner, Gagne. Maslow. Lave and Pask.
Wenger,
Brandsford,
Collins &
Duguid.
Views of the Change in Defined by Internal A personal Interaction with and Systemic and
learning process behaviour. mental process Act to fulfill observation of others defined by
(Including insight, potential. in a social context. capacities of
perception, memory,
information throughput, and
processing, and feedback loops.
memory. Learner is ‘wired’
into the
environment
Locus of Stimuli Internal Affective & Interaction of Feedback
Learning In the Cognitive cognitive person’s And self
External Structure. needs. behaviour, and Regulating
Environment. environment. Systems in a
complex
Environment.
Purpose of Produce Develop capacity Become self- Model new Develop the
instruction Behavioural and skills to learn actualized, Roles and learner as
Change in better. Autonomous behaviour. ‘information
desired processor’.
Direction.  
Role of the Design stimuli Structure content Facilitate Present models of Design
Designer to elicit desired of learning development new roles and Systems that
response. activity. Of the whole behaviours. accept student
Meaningful and person. inputs and
logical provide
arrangement of meaningful
contents. feedback.
 
4.2 Reception Learning

In reception learning, the information is provided directly to the learner and it does not involve
discovery.
Reception learning involves provision of direct information in finished form.
It is opposite to the discovery learning in which the students work like a scientists and discover
knowledge rather than receive it.
Reception learning is also distinguished from rote learning.
Much school-based learning in science in Pakistan is Rote-Reception.
4.3 Relational Learning
Students, mentors/teachers learn from each other through the sharing of
ideas and together.
Relational learning is a way of being with students from a social constructionist
perspective where those involved in education.
create the learning/teaching world.
Relational learning is practices that invite both students and teachers to enter
into a dialogue about learning.
 The involvement of multiple parties in the task of learning deconstructs the
hierarchy within the traditional teaching relationship and opens space for more
collaborative experiences.
4.4 Rote Learning
oRote learning is a learning technique which focuses on memorization.
oRote memorization is a necessary step in learning some basic concepts. For
example in the subject of chemistry, the students learn the symbols of elements
by rote.
oThe memorization of Alpha-Bets of any language is a first step, and one that
provides a foundation for the deep understanding that follows at a latter stage.
oRote learning is quick and easy method to learn basic skill (learning of the
verses of the Holy Quran, mathematical tables, definition of nouns, verbs, etc.)
oRote Learning is boring and extremely limited. (No one is going to learn the
subtleties of Spenser's use of Allegory with Rote Learning).
oIn Pakistan, rote learning is strongly discouraged in the new curriculum of
science and mathematics.
 4.5 Meaningful Learning
◦ Two of the most important educational goals are to enhance
retention and to promote transfer.

◦ RETENSION
◦ Retention is the ability to remember material at some later time in much
the same way it was presented during instructions.

TRANSFER
Transfer is the ability to use what was learned to solve new problem.
 Consider three learning scenarios.

◦ 1. No Learning.

◦ 2. Rote Learning.

◦ 3. Meaningful Learning.
Meaningful Learning

In meaningful learning prior knowledge is the most important factor. This

means that learning primarily depends on what the learner already knows.
Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential fit between the
student’s schemas and the material to be learned.
Meaningful learning (as distinct from rote learning) as; non-arbitrary,
substantive, non-verbatim incorporation of new knowledge into a cognitive
structure.
Cognitive structure means the stable organization of concepts in the human
mind.
4.6 Approach to Learning
Constructivism is the development of:
Situated learning
Meta-cognition
Higher order thinking
The social basis of learning
Movement from didactic to teaching
Student-centered learning
Intrinsic motivation
The emphasis on the process of learning rather than on product
 Scope and Practical Application
◦ Ausubel (1968) indicates that his theory applies only to reception
(expository) learning in school setting. He distinguishes reception
learning from rule learning and discovery learning, the former
because it does not involve subsumption (i.e. meaningful
material) and the latter because the learner must discover
information through problem solving.
4.7 Children’s Misconception in
Science

Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a conceptual misunderstanding.

These are cases in which something a person knows and believes does not match what is known
to be scientifically correct.
4.7.1 Implication for teachers.
* Provide children of all ages with lots of hand-on activities.
* Provide more evidence.
* Help the children to make prediction and consider the challenge.
* Clarify the concepts with the help of examples.
* Develop a scientific dictionary, work bank etc.
* Students need to be helped by the teacher to make links between the situations.
Scientific concepts Associated misconceptions
1. Whether something sinks or floats depends on a  Things float if they are light and sink if they are heavy.
combination of its density, buoyancy, and effect on  
surface tension.  
    
1. Clouds contain very small particles of water or ice  Clouds contain water that leaks out as rain.
that are held up in the air by the lifting action of air  
currents, wind and convection. These particles can  
become bigger through condensation and when they  
become too heavy to be held up in the air they fall  
to the earth as rain, hail or snow.  
   An animal is a land mammal other than a human
1. An animal is a multi-cellular organism that is capable being. Insects, birds and fish are not animals.
of independent movement.  
 
In constructivism theory the knowledge is constructed rather than
received.
Misconceptions can be referred to as a preconceived notion or a
conceptual misunderstanding.
To make the lesson more meaningful, clarify the concepts with the
help of examples and non-examples.
The irritating thing about misconceptions is that people continue to
build knowledge on their current understandings.