Chapter 4: Functional

Anatomy of Prokaryotic
and Eukaryotic Cells
objectives
 After this lecture students will know the
characteristics of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes and their differences and
similarities
 Grams reaction, Gram positive and Gram
Negative Bacteria
 Differences between Grams +ve and –ve
organisms
objectives
 Structure of prokaryote and Eukaryotes
 Organelles and their functions
 Bacteria shapes and arrangements
 Structures external to the cell wall of
bacteria
 Cell wall and Bacteria Gram’s Reactions
Comparing Prokaryotic and
Eukaryotic Cells: An Overview
 Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes are chemically
similar.
 They both contain nucleic acids, proteins, lipids
and carbohydrates.
 They use the same kinds of chemical reactions
to metabolize food, build proteins and store
energy.
 It is primarily the structure of the cells that
distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes.
Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
 The DNA is not enclosed within a
membrane and is usually a singular
circularly arranged chromosome.
 Their DNA is not associated with histones.
 They lack membrane enclosed organelles.
 Their cell walls almost always contain the
complex polysaccharide peptidoglycan.
 They usually divide by binary fission.
Prokaryote
Eukaryotes
 Their DNA is found in the cell’s nucleus, which is separated
from the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane, and the DNA is
found in multiple chromosomes.
 Their DNA is constantly associated with chromosomal
proteins called histones and with nonhistones.
 They have a number of membrane closed organelles.
 Their cell walls when present, are chemically simple.
 Cell division usually involves mitosis, in which chromosomes
replicate and an identical set is distributed into each of two
nuclei.
Eukaryote
The Prokaryotic Cell
 The members of the prokaryotic world
make up a vast heterogeneous group of
very small unicellular organisms.
 Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea.
 Bacteria are differentiated by: morphology
(shape), chemical composition, nutritional
requirements, biochemical activities, source
of energy, among others.
Prokaryotic Cell
Arrangement, Shape and Sizes
The Size, Shape and Arrangement of
Bacterial Cells
 Bacteria comes in various size and shape.
 Most bacteria range from 0.2 to 2.0 µm in
diameter and from 2.0 to 8µm in length.
 They have a few basic shapes:
 Spherical- coccus (meaning berries)
 Rod-shaped- bacillus (meaning little staffs)
 Spiral
Shapes of Bacteria
The Size, Shape and Arrangement of
Bacterial Cells
 Cocci that remain in pairs after dividing are called
Diplococci.
 Those that remain in chain-like patterns are called
Streptococci.
 Those that divide in two planes and remain in
groups of four are called Tetrads.
 Those that divide in three planes and remain
attached in cube-like groups are called Sarcinae.
 Those that divide in multiple planes and form
grape like clusters are called Staphylococci.
Types of Cocci
The Size, Shape and Arrangement of
Bacterial Cells
 Most bacilli appear in single rods.
 Diplobacilli appears in pairs after division.
 Streptobacilli occur in chains.
 Coccobacilli are oval and look like cocci.
 N.B. – “Bacillus” has two meanings in
microbiology. Bacillus refers to a bacterial shape.
When capitalized and italicized it refers to a
specific genus. E.g. Bacillus anthracis.
Types of bacilli
The Size, Shape and Arrangement of
Bacterial Cells
 Bacteria that look like curved rods are
called vibrios.
 Spirilla have a helical shape, like a
corkscrew, and fairly rigid bodies.
 Spirochetes are helical and flexible.
 In addition to the three basic shapes there
are star shaped cells, rectangular flat cells
and triangular cells.
Vibrio Spirilla

Spirochete
The Size, Shape and Arrangement of
Bacterial Cells
 The shape of a bacterium is determined by
heredity.
 Genetically most bacteria are monomorphic
(they maintain a single shape).
 Some bacteria are pleomorphic (they can
have many shapes).
Structures External to the Cell Wall
 The structures external to the cell wall are:
 Glycocalyx
 Flagella
 Axial filaments
 Fimbriae
 Pili
Typical Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Glycocalyx
 Glycocalyx is the general term for substances that
surround the cells.
 The bacterial glycocalyx is a viscous gelatinous
polymer that is external to the cell wall and
composed of polysaccharide, polypeptide or both.
 If the substance is organized and firmly attached
to the cell wall, the glycocalyx is described as a
capsule.
 If the substance is unorganized and only loosely
attached to the cell wall, it is described as a slime
layer.
Glycocalyx
 In certain species capsules are important in
contributing to a bacterial virulence.
 Capsules often protect pathogenic bacteria from
phagocytosis by the cells of the host.
 A glycocalyx made of sugars is called an
extracellular polysaccharide (EPS).
 EPS enables a bacteria to survive by attaching to
various surfaces in its natural environment.
 A glycocalyx also protects a cell against
dehydration and its viscosity may inhibit the
movement of nutrients out of the cell.
Complex Glycocalyx Structure
Flagella
 Some prokaryotic cells have flagella which are
long filamentous appendages that propel bacteria.
 Bacteria that lack flagella are referred to as
atrichous.
 Those that have flagella may have one of four
arrangements:
 Monotrichous (a single polar flagellum).
 Amphitrichous (a tuft of flagella at each end of the cell.
 Lophotrichous (two or more flagella at one or both ends of
the cell).
 Peritichous (flagella distributed over the entire cell).
Flagella
 A flagella has three distinct parts:
 The outermost region- filament –this is constant in
diameter and contains the globular protein flagellin
arranged in several chains that intertwine and form a helix
around a hollow core. Filaments are not covered by a
membrane or a sheath.
 The filament is attached to a slightly wider hook
consisting of a different protein.
 The basal body anchors the flagellum to the cell wall and
plasma membrane.
 Bacterial cells can alter the speed and
direction of rotation of flagella and thus are
capable of various patterns of motility.
 The movement of a bacterium away from or
towards a particular stimulus is called taxis.
 Such stimuli include chemicals
(chemotaxis) and light (phototaxis).
Structure of a Flagella
Axial Filaments
 Spirochetes are a group of bacteria that
have unique structure and motility.
 Spirochetes move by means of axial
filaments or endoflagella, bundles of fibrils
that arise at the ends of the cell beneath an
outer sheath and spirals around the cell.
 Axial filaments have a structure similar to
that of the flagella.
Axial Filament
Fimbriae and Pili
 Many gram-negative bacteria contain hair like
appendages that are shorter, straighter and
thinner than flagella and are used for attachment
and transfer of DNA rather than for motility.
 These structures consist of protein called pilin
arranged helically around a central core.
 They are divided into two groups, fimbriae and
pili, having very different functions.
Fimbriae and Pili
 Fimbriae can occur at the poles of the bacterial cell, or they
can be evenly distributed over the entire surface of the cell.
 They can number from a few to several hundred per cell.
 Fimbriae enables the cells to attach to surfaces, including
the surfaces of other cells.
 Pili are usually longer than fimbriae and number only one or
two per cell.
 Pili join bacterial cells in preparation for the transfer of DNA
from one cell to another, a process called conjugation
Fimbriae and Pili
The Cell Wall
 The cell wall of the bacterial cell is a
complex, semi rigid structure responsible for
the shape of the cell.
 It surrounds the underlying, fragile plasma
membrane and protects it and the interior of
the cell from adverse changes in the outside
environment.
 Almost all prokaryotes have cell walls
 The major function of the cell wall is to prevent
bacterial cells from rupturing when the water
pressure inside the cell is greater than the
pressure outside the cell.
 It also helps maintain the shape of the bacterium
and serves a point of anchorage for flagella.
 Clinically, the cell wall contributes to the ability of
some species to cause disease and is the site of
action of some antibiotics.
 The chemical composition of the cell wall is used
to differentiate major types of bacteria.
 The bacterial cell wall is composed of a
macromolecular network called
peptidoglycan, which is present either alone
or in combination with other substances.
Gram-positive Bacteria
Gram-positive Cell walls
 The call walls consists of many layers of
peptidoglycan.
 They contain teichoic acids which consists
of an alcohol and phosphate. They are two
classes:
 Lipoteichoic acid
 Wall teichoic acid
 Teichoic acid binds and regulates the
movement of cations into and out of the
cell.
 They also assume a role in cell growth,
preventing extensive wall break down and
possible cell lysis.
 It provides much of the wall’s antigenic
specificity, making it possible to identify
bacteria using lab tests.
Gram-Negative Bacteria
Gram-negative Cell walls
 It consists of 1 or a few layers of
peptidoglycan and an outer membrane.
 They do not contain teichoic acid.
 They are not susceptible to mechanical
breakage.
 The outer membrane consists of
lipopolysaccharides, lipoproteins and
phospholipids.
 The outer membrane :
 Provides a barrier to certain antibiotics, digestive

enzymes and certain dyes.

 Its strong negative charge is an important factor in

evading phagocytosis and the actions of complements .

 It does not provide an outer barrier to all substances in

the environment because nutrients must pass through to

sustain the cells metabolism.
 The LPS component of the outer membrane provides 2

important characteristics of gram-negative bacteria:

 The polysaccharide portion is composed of sugars that
functions as antigens.
 The lipid portion of the lipopolysaccharide is toxic when
in the host bloodstream and gastrointestinal tract.
Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria
Cell Wall and the Gram Stain
Mechanism
 This mechanism is based on differences in structure of the
cell walls of the gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria
and how each reacts to the various reagents.
 Gram-positive bacteria stains purple and Gram-negative
bacteria stains pink.
 There are four basic steps of the Gram stain, which include
applying a primary stain (crystal violet) to a heat-fixed
smear of a bacterial culture, followed by the addition of a
mordant (Gram's iodine), rapid decolorization with alcohol
or acetone, and counterstaining with safranin or
basic fuchsin.
Atypical Cell Walls
 Certain types of cells have no walls or have a little
wall material.
 These include members of the genus Mycoplasma
and related organisms.
 These are the smallest known bacteria that can
grow and reproduce outside living host cells.
 There plasma membranes have lipids called
sterols which are thought to help protect them
from rupture.
 Archaea may lack walls or may have
unusual walls composed of
polysaccharides and proteins.
 They contain a substance similar to
peptidoglycan called pseudomurein.
Damage to cell walls
 Chemicals that damage bacterial cell walls
do not usually affect the cell walls of an
animal host.
 The cell wall can be damaged by the
exposure to the digestive enzyme lysozyme,
affecting mainly gram-positive cells.
 Certain antibiotics, such as penicillin may
also destroy the cell walls.
Structures Internal to the Cell Wall
 Structures internal to the cell wall include
the plasma membrane and other
components within the cytoplasm.
Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane
 It is a thin structure internal to the cell wall
and enclosing the cytoplasm.
 Chemically, it is composed of about 60%
protein and 40% lipid (most of which is
phospholipids.
 The most important function is to serve as a
selective barrier through which materials
enter and exit the cell.
 It contains enzymes capable of catalyzing
chemical reactions that break down
nutrients and produce energy.
Movements of Materials Across the
Membranes
 Diffusion
 Simple diffusion
 Facilitated Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active Transport
Cytoplasm
 This refers to everything inside the plasma
membrane.
 It is composed of 80% water and contains nucleic
acid, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, inorganic
ions and many low-molecular-weight compounds.
 It is the substance in which the chemical reactions
of cells occur.
 It is also the place where new substances
synthesize for cellular use.
 It includes the fluid component (matrix), particles
with various functions and a nuclear region. The
fluid is thick, semitransparent and elastic.
 Within the cytoplasm are suspended
accumulation of several kinds of reverse
material, known as inclusions. These include:
 Metachromatic granules
 Polysaccharide granules
 Polysaccharide granules
 Lipid inclusions
 Sulfur granules

The cytoplasm also contains thousands of structure

called ribosomes, which give the cytoplasm a
granular appearance, which are composed of RNA
and protein.
Nuclear Area
 This contains a single, long, circular molecule of
DNA referred to as the bacterial chromosome.
 This is the cell’s genetic information.
 Bacteria contain small cyclic DNA molecules
called plasmids.
 These are extrachromosomal genetic elements;
i.e. they are not connected to the main bacterial
chromosome.
Endospores
 When essential nutrients are depleted,
certain gram-positive bacteria are capable
of forming specialized “resting” cells called
endospores.
 They are highly durable, dehydrated bodies
with a thick wall and are formed inside the
bacterial cell wall.
The Eukaryotic Cell
 These include algae, protozoans, fungi,
higher plants and animals.
 It is typically larger and more complex than
that of the prokaryotic cell.
 The genetic material is membrane-bounded,
organized into chromosomes and closely
associated with histones and other proteins.
 They contain membrane-bounded organelles,
which are specialized structures that perform
specific functions.
Flagella and Cilia
 These are used for locomotion.
 They contain cytoplasm and are enclosed in a
plasma membrane.
 Flagella are few and long in relation to the size of
the cell.
 Cilia are numerous and short, resembling hairs.
 A sperm cell’s tail is considered a flagella.
 Structurally, eukaryotic flagella and cilia are
composed of 9 pairs of small tubules called
microtubules that form a ring around an inner
central pair.
 The central pair arise from a plate near the surface
of the cell, and the outer pairs arise from a
centriole.
The Cell Wall
 The eukaryote cell wall is simpler than that
of the prokaryote’s.
 Algae have cell walls consisting of the
polysaccharide cellulose.
 Fungi consists of both cellulose and chitin.
 Cell walls of yeast contain the
polysaccharide glucan and mannan.
 Protozoa do not have a typical cell wall.
The Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane
 Cells that lack cell walls has a plasma
membrane representing the external
covering of the cell.
 Membranes contain sterols (complex lipids),
associated with the cells ability to resist lysis
due to increased osmotic pressure.
 Substances can cross eukaryotic plasma
membranes by simple diffusion, osmosis,
facilitated diffusion or active transport.
 Mechanisms used by Eukaryotic cells:
 Phagocytosis- “cell eating”, cellular
projections called pseudopods engulf solid
particles external to the cell.
 Pinocytosis- “cell drinking”, the engulfed
material is in liquid rather than solid form.
 When both phagocytosis and pinocytosis
involve the inward movement of materials,
they are together referred to as endocytosis.
 When the reversed occurs they are referred
to as exocytosis.
Cytoplasm
 This encompasses everything inside the
cell’s membrane and external to the
nucleus.
 It is the matrix in which various cellular
components can be found.
 The fluid component of the cytoplasm of
eukaryotes is similar to that of prokaryotes.
 Many of the important enzymes found in the
cytoplasmic fluid of prokaryotes are
sequestered in the organelles of eukaryotes.
Organelles
 Nucleus
 Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Golgi Complex
 Mitochondria
 Lysosomes
 Centrosomes
 Chloroplasts
The Nucleus
 The nucleus is usually spherical or oval.
 It is the largest structure in the cell and contains
almost all of the cell’s heredity information (DNA).
 It is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear
envelope.
 Minute pores in the nuclear membrane allows for
communication with endoplasmic reticulum.
 Within the nuclear envelope is a gel like substance
called nucleoplasm.
 Spherical bodies called nucleoli are also present.
 They serve as centers for the synthesis of rRNA.
 DNA appears as threadlike mass called chromatin.
 It then coils into shorter and thicker bodies called
chromosomes.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It is a system consisting of pairs of parallel
membranes enclosing narrow cavities of varying
shapes.
 The ER provides a surface area for chemical
reaction, a pathway for transporting molecules
within the cell and a storage area for synthesized
molecules.
 It plays a role in lipid synthesis and protein
synthesis.
 Attached some ER are small, dense, spherical
bodies called ribosome, which are also found in
free cytoplasm.
 Ribosomes are the sites for protein synthesis.
Golgi Complex
 Consists of 4-8 flattened channels, stacked
upon each other with expanded areas at
their ends.
 It is sometimes connected to the ER.
 It secretes certain proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates.
 The Golgi complex functions in synthesis of
carbohydrates which combine with the
protein to form glycoproteins.
Lysosomes
 They are formed from Golgi complexes, and
appear as membrane enclosed spheres.
 They have only a single membrane and lack
detailed structure.
 They contain powerful digestive enzymes capable
of breaking down many kinds of molecules,
including bacteria that enters the cell.
 When the cell is injured lysosomes release their
enzyme, which promotes reactions that breaks
the cell down into its chemical constituents.
 These are reused or excreted by the body.
Vacoules
Mitochondria
 Spherical, rod-shaped or filamentous organelles
that appear throughout the cytoplasm.
 It consists of a double membrane similar in
structure to the plasma membrane.
 The outer membrane is smooth but the inner
membrane is arranged in a series of folds called
cristae.
 The center is called the matrix.
 The inner membrane provides an enormous
surface area for chemical reactions.
 Enzymes involved in energy-releasing reactions
that form ATP are located on the cristae.
Chloroplasts
 Algae and green plants contain this unique
organelle.
 It is a membrane-bounded structure that
contains the pigment chlorophyll and
enzymes required for light gathering
involved in photosynthesis.
 They are capable of multiplying by fission
within the cell.
Perixisomes
Centrosome
 The centrosome is located near the nucleus
and consists of two components: the
pericentriolar area and centrioles.
The Evolution of Eukaryotes
 Biologist believe that life arose on the earth
from simple organisms like prokaryote cells.
 Eukaryotes then evolved from prokaryotes.
 The theory explaining the origin of
eukaryotes from prokaryotes, pioneered by
Lynn Margulis, is the endosymbiotic
theory.
The Evolution of Eukaryotes
 According to this theory, larger bacterial
cells lost their cell walls and engulfed
smaller bacterial cells.
 The relationship in which one cell lies within
another is called endosymbiosis.
 Studies comparing prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells provide evidence for the
endosymbiotic theory.
Key terms
 Refer to the course text for key words
related to this chapter.
Reference
 Tortora, Funke and Case: Microbiology an
Introduction.