C2A – CHEMISTRY UNIT

BY EILISH BROWNE
• J. Chadwick 1931
• Neutron identified
• E. Rutherford 1919
• Proton existence confirmed, neutron proposed
• H. Moseley 1913
• Atomic number determined, periodic table reorganized
• J.J Thomson 1913
• Positive charge in the nucleus and naturally occurring isotopes discovered
• R. A. Millikan 1913
• Mass of electron determined
• E. Rutherford, H. Geiger 1909 - 11
• Identification of an atomic nucleus
• J.J Thomson 1897
• Electron Discovered
• H. Becquerel, M. Curie, E. Rutherford 1896 - 9
• Radioactivity discovered and identified
• D. Mendeleev 1869
• First periodic table
• J. Dalton 1804
• First ‘modern’ atomic theory
• Democritus -400 BC
• The first Coherent atomic theory
ATOM
HISTORY OF THE
 STRUCTURE OF THE
ATOM
Atoms consist of electrons surrounding a nucleus that
contains protons and neutrons. Neutrons are neutral, but
protons and electrons are electrically charged. Protons have
a relative charge of +1, and electrons have a relative charge
of -1. The number of protons in an atom is called its atomic
number. Electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells,
and different energy levels can hold different numbers of
electrons. The electronic structure of an atom is a
description of how the electrons are arranged, which can be
shown in a diagram or by numbers. There is a link between
the position of an element in the periodic table and its
electronic structure.

Shell
Neutron
Proton

Electron N
P P
E + E
+ -
- N

Nucleus
 IONIC COMPOUNDS
Ionic compounds
Ionic bonds form when a metal reacts
with a non-metal. Metals form positive
ions; non-metals form negative ions.
Ionic bonds are the electrostatic forces of
attraction between oppositely charged
ions. The oppositely charged ions are
arranged in a regular way to form giant
ionic lattices. Ionic compounds often
form crystals as a result. The illustration
shows part of a sodium chloride (NaCl)
ionic lattice.

Giant Ionic Structures

Giant ionic structures have very high melting points and boiling points
because they have very strong chemical bonds between all the ions in the giant
structure. They dissolve to form solutions that conduct electricity. When they
are dissolved the ions separate and are all free to move in the solution. They
also conduct electricity when they are molten.
 COVALTENT BONDING
A covalent bond is formed between non metal atoms, which
combine together by sharing electrons. Covalent compounds have
no free electrons and no ions so they don't conduct electricity. The
group of atoms bonded together in this way is called a molecule.
The types and numbers of atoms in a molecule are shown in its
formula. The Periodic Table is an arrangement of the elements in
order of atomic number. Elements in the same vertical column are
in the same group or family and have similar chemical properties.
 MACROMOLECULES
Giant covalent structures are very hard and strong. They are similar
to giant ionic structures but there are no charged ions. All of the
atoms are bonded by strong covalent bonds. They have very high
melting and boiling points, are usually insoluble in water and don't
conduct electricity. The main examples are Diamond and Graphite
which are both made only from carbon atoms.

Diamond
Each carbon atom forms four
covalent bonds in very rigid
giant covalent structure.

Graphite
Each carbon atom only forms thee
covalent bonds, creating layers
which are free to slide over each
other, leaving free electrons. This
means that graphite is the only non-
metal which conducts electricity.
 NANOSCIENCE
Nanoscience is the science of very small particles. It looks
at the properties of nanoparticles. These are particles with
in the rang of 0.1nm to 100nm. The name “nano” means
10 to the power of -9. A nanometre is one millionth of a
millimetre. It is written nm.1nm = 0.000000001 meters.
Nanotechnology looks at the new use of these small
particles.
 METALLIC BONDING
Metals form giant structures in which electrons in the
outer shells of the metal atoms are free to move. The
metallic bond is the force of attraction between these
free electrons and metal ions. Metallic bonds are strong,
so metals can maintain a regular structure and usually
have high melting and boiling points.

Metals are good conductors of electricity and heat,

because the free electrons carry a charge or heat energy
through the metal. The free electrons allow metal atoms
to slide over each other, so metals are malleable and
ductile.
Type of Bonding MPT/ BPT Conductivity Diagram
ºC

Ionic High When they

•MgO dissolve, they
•NaCl separate and
•KBr are able to
conduct
electricity
Simple Covalent Low Non-
Weak forces conductors
of attraction
between the
molecules
Giant Covalent High Non- H H
•Diamond conductors
•Graphite

Diamond

Metallic High High

•Copper Metals have
•Nickel delocalised Graphite

electrons
which are free
to move
Nanoscience + + + +
+ + + +
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