Introduction to particulate

nature of matter
Notes _1
 States of Matter

• The three states of matter

are
1. Solid

2. Liquid

3. Gas
 Kinetic Particle Theory
Kinetic particle theory
• The kinetic particle theory explains the
properties of the different states of
matter. The particles in solids, liquids and
gases have different amounts of energy.
They are arranged differently and move
in different ways.
• The table summarizes the arrangement
and movement of the particles in solids,
liquids and gases, and shows simple
diagrams for the arrangement of these
particles.
• The way the particles of matter move
depends on the temperature. As the
temperature increases the average
kinetic energy of the particles
increases – the particles in a solid
vibrate more. The particles in liquids
and gases also vibrate, rotate, and
translate more
 Changes of state

• If you heat a block of ice in a

beaker it will melt to form liquid
water. If you continue heating the
water, it will boil to form water
vapor. Figure2 shows a heating
curve for water – it shows how its
temperature changes during these
changes of state. We shall look at
the relationship between
temperature and the kinetic
energy of particles during these
changes of state.
 Temperature
• There are a number of different • You can convert temperatures
temperature scales. The most commonly from the Celsius scale to the
used are the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin scale using the algorithm:
Kelvin scales. All three are named in
honour of the scientist who developed • temperature (K) = temperature
them. (°C) + 273.15
• The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin
(K). The Kelvin scale is used in
energetics calculations.
• Absolute zero is zero on the Kelvin
scale, 0 K (on the Celsius scale this is
-273 °C). It is the temperature at which
all movement of particles stops.
Kinetic particle theory and state changes

• The kinetic particle theory Solids Properties Why they are like this
explains the properties of They have a fixed shape and cannot The particles cannot move from place
solids, liquids and gases. There flow to place

are energy changes when They cannot be compressed or

squashed
The particles are close together and
have no space to move into
changes in state occur.
Brownian motion is the Properties Why they are like this Liqui
random movement of fluid They flow and take the shape of The particles are free to move
their container around each other
particles. They cannot be compressed or The particles are close together
squashed and have no space to move into
Gases Properties Why they are like this
They flow and completely fill The particles can move quickly
their container in all directions
They can be compressed or The particles are far apart and
squashed have space to move into
Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
•All three states of matter (solid, liquid and
gas) expand when heated. The atoms
themselves do not expand, but
the volume they take up does.
•When a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate
faster about their fixed points. The relative
increase in the size of solids when heated
is therefore small. Metal railway tracks
have small gaps so that when the sun heats
them, the tracks expand into these gaps
and don’t buckle.
•Liquids expand for the same reason, but
because the bonds between separate
molecules are usually less tight they
expand more than solids.
•Liquids expand for the same reason, but
because the bonds between separate
molecules are usually less tight they expand
more than solids. This is the principle behind
liquid-in-glass thermometers. An increase in
temperature results in the expansion of the
liquid which means it rises up the glass.
•Molecules within gases are further apart and
weakly attracted to each other. Heat causes
the molecules to move faster, (Heat energy
converted to Kinetic Energy. which means
that the volume of a gas increases more than
the volume of a solid or liquid.
• However, gases that are contained in a fixed volume
cannot expand - and so increases in temperature result in
increases in pressure.
 State changes
• Changes of state are:
• solids melting into liquids
• liquids boiling into gases
• gases condensing into liquids
• liquids freezing or solidifying into solids.
• Evaporation is sometimes confused with
boiling. They both involve liquids
turning to gases, but evaporation is
different because:
• it occurs at any temperature - not just the
boiling point.
• it only happens at the surface of the liquid -
not throughout like boiling
• boiling requires an energy input -
whereas evaporation is the release of the
molecules with the highest energy
• Evaporation cools liquids as a result of
this energy loss. Evaporation is
increased by higher temperatures, a
greater surface area or a draft over this
surface area.
• A substance must absorb heat energy so
that it can melt or boil. The temperature
of the substance does not change during
melting, boiling or freezing - even
though energy is still being transferred.
Heating curves and cooling curves

• A heating curve is a graph showing the

temperature of a substance plotted against
the amount of energy it has absorbed. You
may also see a cooling curve, which is
obtained when a substance cools down and
changes state.
• The temperature stays the same when a
solid is melting or a liquid is boiling
(changing state) during a change of state,
even though heat energy is being
absorbed.
• The temperature also stays the same while
a liquid freezes, even though heat energy
is still being released to the surroundings.
A heating curve for ice
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

SECTION 2.2
 HE.1 T2
2.1 Th

Background to atomic theory.th1 TB  to  to

• Understandings
• ➔ Atoms contain a positively
•Background to
charged dense nucleus atomic theory
composed of protons and
• Two Greek philosophers, Leucippus
neutrons (nucleons). and Democritus stated around 440
• ➔ Negatively charged electrons BC that matter was composed of
occupy the space outside the indivisible particles termed atoms.
nucleus. However, no concrete scientific
evidence was given to support this
• ➔ The mass spectrometer is hypothesis and so it was not
used to determine the relative accepted to any great degree by the
atomic mass of an element from scientific community at the time.
its isotopic composition
 Dalton’s atomic theory
• In 1808 the English school
teacher John Dalton
developed an atomic model
of matter that was supported
by experimental data. This
model formed the origin of
atomic theory that underpins
much of modern science.
• Dalton called the indivisible
building blocks that comprise
matter “atoms”. Dalton’s theory
can be summarized as follows.
• Postulate 1: All matter
(materials) consists of very small
particles called atoms
• Postulate 2: An element consists
of atoms of one type only.
 Dalton’s atomic theory
• Postulate 3: Compounds consist
of atoms of more than one
element and are formed by
combining atoms in whole-
number ratios.
• Postulate 4: In a chemical
reaction atoms are not created
or destroyed.
• The simple “laws of chemical
combination "were known to the
scientific community in the18th
Century and Dalton’s theory
explains a number of these.
• The law of definite proportions:
This was proposed by a French
scientist, Joseph Proust, in 1799.
• The law states that a compound
always has the same proportion
of elements by mass.
• For example, if you measure the
mass of sulfur and oxygen in sulfur
trioxide, SO3 it will always contain
1 part sulfur and 3 parts oxygen by
mass.
• The law of conservation of matter:
Matter cannot be created or
destroyed. The total mass of matter
following a chemical reaction is
equal to the total mass of matter
before the start of the reaction.
• For a scientific theory to be
accepted it should not only
provide an explanation of known
observations but should be able
to predict correctly the
outcomes of future experiments.
• Dalton used his theory to deduce
another law: The law of multiple
proportions:
 The law of multiple proportions:
• If two elements X and Y combine in
different ways to form more than one
compound, the masses of X that
combine with a fixed mass of Y can be
expressed as a ratio of small whole
numbers.
• Example: The law of multiple
proportions.
• consider measuring the mass of
carbon and oxygen in forming the two
compounds carbon monoxide, CO(g),
and carbon dioxide, CO2(g).
• An experiment might measure that 3 g of
carbon combines with 4 g of oxygen to form
carbon monoxide, whereas 3 g of carbon
combines with 8 g of oxygen to form carbon
dioxide.
• Carbon and oxygen have combined in different
ratios to give different compounds:
• CO(g): C:O ratio = 3:4
• CO2(g): C:O ratio = 3:8The ratio of the masses
of oxygen that combine
• with the same mass of carbon to form the two
• compounds is 1:2 (a simple ratio of whole
numbers).