WORK MOTIVATION

CHAPTER-2
 Introduction
 Performance of machines or non-human factors are
dependant upon the level of technology and the types
of people who use them.

The performance of people depend upon two factors,

 Ability to do a work

 Motivation
 What is motivation?
 Motivation is an important factor which
encourages people to give their best
performance and help in reaching
enterprise goals.

 Positivemotivation will increase output

of employee but a negative motivation
will reduce their performance.
 Meaning and Definition
 According to Likert, “ it is the core of
management which shows that every
human being gives him a sense of worth
in face to face groups which are most
important to him. A supervisor should
strive to treat individuals with dignity
and a recognition of their personal
worth.”
 Meaning and Definition
 Berelson and Steiner: “ A motive is an inner
state that energizes, activates, or moves and
directs or channels behavior goals.”
 Vitiles: “Motivation represents an unsatisfied

need which creates a state of tension or

disequilibrium, causing the individual to make
in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a
state of disequilibrium by satisfying the need.”
 Meaning and Definition (Contd)
 Vance: “Motivation implies any emotion or
desire which so conditions one’s will that the
individual is properly led into action”
 Memoria: “ A willingness to expend energy to

achieve a goal or reward. It is a force that

activates dormant energies and sets in motion
the action of the people. It is a function that
kindles a burning passion for action among
the human beings of an organizations.”
 Nature of Motivation
 Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a person
to work more.
 The emotions or desires of a person prompt him for

doing a particular work.

 There are unsatisfied needs of a person which disturb

his equilibrium.
 A person moves to fulfill his unsatisfied needs by

conditioning his energies

 There are dormant energies in a person which are

activated by channelizing them into actions.

 Types of Motivation
1. Positive Motivation
 This motivation is based on reward.
 The workers are offered incentives for
achieving desired goals.
 Incentives may be in the shape of more
pay, promotion, recognition of work
etc.
 Types of Motivation
2. Negative Motivation
 Negative motivation is based on force or
fear.
 Fear causes employees to act in a certain
way. If they do not, they may be punished
with demotions or lay-offs.
 The employees do not willingly cooperate,
rather they want to avoid punishment
 This causes anger and frustration.
Importance of Motivation
Efforts should be made to
motivate employees for
contributing their maximum.
The motivated employees
become an asset to the
organization.
 Importance of Motivation
1. High Performance
2. Low Employee Turnover and
Absenteeism
3. Better Organizational Image
4. Better Industrial Relations
5. Acceptability to change
 Techniques to Increase Motivation

A. Financial Motivators- Wages,

salaries, bonuses, profit-
sharing, leave with pay,
medical reimbursement,
company paid insurance
 Techniques to Increase Motivation

B. Non-financial Motivators-
1. Recognition
2. Participation
3. Status
4. Competition
5. Job Enrichment
 Need

Motives

Wants

Behavior
 Frustration
 If
a need is not satisfied because of
some reasons, the person may feel
frustration.

 Frustration can be defined as the

accumulation of tension because of
non-fulfillment of needs.
 Common Behavior
in Case of Frustration
1. Aggression- Displacement, Negativism,
Fixation

2. Withdrawal- Fantasy, regression, flight

3. Compromise- rationalization,
identification
 Abraham Maslow
 Abraham Maslow, an eminent U.S.
Psychologist, gave a general theory
of motivation known as Need
Hierarchy Theory (1943)
 Need Hierarchy Theory

According to Maslow:
i. People have a wide range of needs which motivate
them to work
ii. Human needs can be classified into different
categories
iii. Human needs can be arranged into hierarchy
iv. Human beings start satisfying their needs step by
step
v. A satisfied need does not motivate human behavior
Need Hierarchy Table
Self
Act
uali
zati
Ego/ on
Esteem
Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs
 Need Hierarchy Theory (Contd)
1. Physiological Needs- These are the basic
human needs to sustain life itself- food,
clothing, shelter. Unstill these basic needs
are satisfied, the other needs will provide
little motivation.
2. Safety or Security Needs- These needs are
essentially the need to be free of the fear of
physical danger and deprivation of the basic
physiological needs.
Need Hierarchy Theory (Contd-2)
3. Social needs- These are the basic human needs to be
a part of the society.

4. Ego/Esteem Needs- These are the basic needs to be

known as a leader or as an important person.
Need Hierarchy Theory (Contd-3)
 Self Actualization- this is the need to maximize one’s
potential whatever it may be.
 According to Maslow
i. There are 5 levels of needs
ii. All these needs are arranged in
a hierarchy
iii. A satisfied need is no longer a
need. Once a need is satisfied it
ceases to be a motivating factor
 According to Maslow
iv. Once one level of need is satisfied, the next
level of need will emerge
v. The physiological and security needs are
finite but the needs of higher order are
infinite and are likely to be dominant in
people at higher levels in the organization
vi. Maslow suggests that various levels are
interdependent and overlapping.
Critical Analysis of Maslow’s Theory
Maslow’s theory has been widely appreciated as:
 It helps managers in understanding how to motivate

the employee
 This theory is very simple, common and easily

understandable
 It accounts for both inter-personal and intra-personal

variations in human behavior

 This theory is dynamic because it presents motivation

as a changing force- one level of needs to the other

level.
 Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory
 Researchers have proved that there is a lack of
hierarchical structure of needs as suggested by
Maslow.eg Mahatma Gandhi
 Lack of direct cause and effect relationship between

need & behavior. One particular need may cause

different type of behavior in different persons.
 Need & satisfaction of needs is a psychological
feeling. How can the managers come to know about
these needs.
 Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory (Contd)
 Itis difficult for researchers to test this theory.
For instance, how does one measure self
actualization?
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Clayton Alderfer reformulated Maslow’s
Need Hierarchy Theory.
The ERG need theory developed by

Alderfer, condenses the five needs given

by Maslow into three needs.
The word ERG is derived from the first

letters of each of these levels of needs.

 Alderfer’s ERG Theory (Contd)
The Three Needs are-
1. Existence Needs- (Include the physiological and
safety needs)
2. Relatedness Needs- ( Include social and esteem
needs)
3. Growth Needs- ( include self actualization needs)
 Revisions of Maslow’s Theory
Alderfer revised Maslow’s Theory in other way’s also:
 Maslow’s need hierarchy follows a rigid, step like

progression. The ERG Theory on the other hand

assumes that more than one need may be operative at
the same time.
 Maslow was of the opinion that a person will move to

the next level only if the needs of the previous level

are satisfied.
 Advantages of ERG Theory
 ERG Theory gives more importance to individual
difference. Every individual will have different
importance for different group of needs depending
upon his education, family, background and cultural
environment.
 ERG Theory is more relevant in comparison to

Maslow’s Theory.
 This Theory is less restrictive and limiting as compared

to other theories.
 Limitations of ERG Theory
 According to this theory, an individual can satisfy any
of the three needs first. But how will we determine
which of the three needs is more important to that
person?

 This theory is a new concept as compared to the

Maslow’s theory. So, it is too early to pass judgment on
the overall validity of the theory.
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Frederick Herzberg and his associates developed the
MOTIVATION HYGIENE THEORY, commonly known as the
two factor theory, in the late 1950’s and the early 1960’s.
 This research was based on the interview of 200 engineers
and accountants.
 Purpose of Research- find out what variables are perceived
to be desirable goals to achieve / undesirable conditions to
avoid.
 During the course of the interviews, these men were asked
to describe a few previous job experiences in which they
felt- ‘exceptionally good’- ‘exceptionally bad’.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Some factors which are consistently
related to job dissatisfaction-
Maintenance or Hygiene factors. The
hygiene factors are extrinsic in nature
 Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
(Contd)
 There are certain factors that tend to
be consistently related to job
satisfaction- Motivational Factors.
The Motivational Factors are intrinsic
in nature.
 1. Hygiene Factors
 These factors do not motivate people, they simply
prevent dissatisfaction and maintain status quo. Such
factors do not produce positive results but prevent
negative results.
 According to Herzberg there are 10
maintenance or hygiene factors.
1. Company Policy & Administration
2. Technical Supervision
3. Inter-personal relations with Supervisor
4. Inter-personal relations with Peers
5. Inter-personal relations with Subordinates
6. Salary
7. Job security
8. Personal life
9. Working conditions
10. Status
 Hygiene Factors
Theword ‘Hygiene’ is taken from
the medical science where it
means taking preventions to
maintain your health but not
necessarily improve it. Similarly….
 2. Motivational Factors
 These factors are intrinsic in nature and
are related to the job. The motivational
factors have a positive effect on job
satisfaction and often result in an
increase in output. These factors have a
positive influence on morale,
satisfaction, efficiency and productivity.
 According to Herzberg 6 Factors
Motivate the Employees
1. Achievement
2. Advancement
3. Possibility of Growth
4. Recognition
5. Work itself
6. Responsibility
 Motivational Factors
 Herzberg stated that hitherto managers
have paid more attention to hygiene
factors. As a result they have not been
able to obtain the desired behavior from
the employees.
 Today’s motivational factors are
tomorrows hygiene factors.
Critical Analysis of Herzberg Theory
 Not Conclusive- The effect of hygiene and
motivational factors may totally be reverse on
some other categories of people.
 Methodology - The report of job experience

will always be subjective and biased.

 Job Enrichment- This theory has totally ignored

job satisfaction, did not pay much attention to

pay, status or inter personal relations.
McClelland’s Need Theory of Motivation
Another appreciable contribution to the
concept of motivation is David
McClelland’s Need Theory.

According to McClelland there are three

motives or needs in work place.
 McClelland’s Need Theory
1. The Need for Achievement (Some people
want to excel to achieve standards and strive
to succeed.
2. The Need for Power (Some people with high
need for power derive satisfaction from
being in position of influence and control.
3. The Need for Affiliation (Some people desire
friendly and close interpersonal
relationships).
McClelland’s Need Theory (Contd)

According to this Theory, every person

has 3 types of needs to varying degrees
Each person has physiological and safety
needs also, which must also be satisfied.
 Limitations of McClelland’s Theory
 Need being a psychological thing. Sometimes person
himself remain unaware of his own need. In such a
case it is difficult for a manager to understand the
employees need.
 One need may cause different types of behavior in

different persons. Also, one particular behavior may

be the cause of different needs.
 The physiological and safety needs are more

important compared to McClelland’s needs.

 McGregor’s X and Y Theory
Douglas McGregor introduced two theories based on
two distinct views of human beings.
 Theory X
 Theory Y

These theories are not based on any research, but

according to McGregor, these are intuitive
deductions
 Theory X
This theory is based on the traditional
approach to human behavior. According
to Managers in this theory
1. Humans dislike work & try to avoid it
2. Employees are lazy, so they must be
controlled, threatened with
punishment, coerced.
 Theory X (Contd)
3. Employees try to avoid responsibility
& seek formal direction as they are un
ambitious.
4. Managers advocate that extreme
control is most appropriate for dealing
with irresponsible and immature
employees.
 Theory Y
Theory Y is a direct contrast of Theory X.

This Theory assumes The average human

being finds work enjoyable as rest or play.

Employees will exercise self control in the

attainment of the objectives to which they
are committed.
 Theory Y (Contd)
Given proper working condition, average
person can learn to accept and to seek
responsibility.

All the people are capable of taking

innovative & creative decisions. (Not only
people in management)
 X and Y Theory
McGregor holds that the assumptions of Theory Y are
more valid than Theory X.
 Cooperation between management and employees
 Lack of conflict between individual and organizational

goals
 Satisfaction of high level needs of employees
 Delegation of authority
 Job enlargement
 Participative management technique
 Management by objectives
 X and Y Theory
Theory X & Theory Y represent two
extremes. People possesses traits from
each of the theories.
Though no generalization can be made,

theory X is more applicable to unskilled

and uneducated lower class workers who
work for the satisfaction of their
physiological needs only.
 X and Y Theory
Theory Y appears to be applicable to
educated, professional employees
who understand their
responsibilities.
The management should use a

combination of both the theories to

motivate different employees.
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Victor Vroom criticized Herzberg’s two
factor theory & said that
 a persons motivation towards a action at

any time would be determined by a

individual’s perception that a certain type
of action would lead to a specific
outcome and his personal preference for
this outcome.
 Vroom’s Theory
 There are 3 variables in Vroom’s Model given in the
form of an equation.

 Since the model is a multiplier, all the 3 variables must

have high positive value to imply motivated
performance choices.

 If
any of the variables is zero, the probability of
motivated performance tends to be zero.
 Vroom’s Model

MOTIVATION=

VALENCE x EXPECTANCY x INSTRUMENTALITY

 Vroom’s Model (Contd)
1. Valence- Valence means the attraction
or repulsion of an outcome to an
individual. It is subjective & varies from
person to person. For eg, a person who
is more interested in getting recognition
for hard work, will not have any valence
for cash reward.
 Vroom’s Model (Contd)
2. Expectancy- It is also referred to as the
Effort-Performance Probability. It
refers to the extent to which the person
believes his efforts will lead to the first
level outcome i.e., completion of the
task. It is the association between effort
and performance.
 Vroom’s Model (Contd)
3. Instrumentality- (Performance Reward
Probability)-
Instrumentality refers to the belief and expectation
of a person that his performance will lead to a
particular desired reward.
 An individual wants a promotion and feels that
superior performance is very important.
 Superior Performance- First level outcome
 Promotion- Second level outcome
 i. Low Effort-Performance
Expectancy
Reasons Steps to be taken
Lack of necessary skills Management should
& training, so that the provide opportunities
workers do not know for training to improve
that their extra efforts skills in order to
will lead to better improve effort
performance performance
relationship
 II. Low Performance- Reward
Instrumentality Relationship
Reasons Steps to be taken
•Reward policy may be •Management should
inconsistent. re-evaluate the
• Reward may depend appraisal techniques.
upon factors other than •Formulate policies
performance which the that strengthen
worker may not be relationship.
aware of or may not
consider fair.
 III. Low Reward Valence
Reasons Steps to be taken
•The rewards may not •Management must
be desirable for the investigate the
workers. desirability of the
•Some workers value rewards on the basis of
money/ some workers performance.
value recognition.
Evaluation of the Expectancy Model
Vroom’s theory has become very popular and
it has provided an alternative to theories
which, according to him were inadequate
explanations of the complex process of work
motivation.
 Highly useful in understanding OB. Explains

how individuals goals influence his efforts and

reveal that individual behavior is goal oriented.
 Evaluation (Contd)
 The Expectancy theory is a cognitive theory,
which values dignity. Individuals are considered
rational human beings who can anticipate their
future on the basis of their beliefs and
expectations.
 According to this theory, managers must make it

possible for an employee to see that effort can

result in appropriate need satisfying rewards.
This level of expectations will improve the
motivation to work.
 Drawbacks of Vroom’s Expectancy Model
i. Vroom’s Theory is very difficult to research and
apply in practice.
ii. This theory assumes man to be a rational human
being who makes decisions consciously. But there
are numerous instances where decisions are taken
with no conscious thoughts.
iii. This theory is very complex. Many managers, in
actual organizational situations, do not have the
time or sources to use a complex system on the job.
Porter and Lawler Model of Motivation
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up
with a comprehensive theory of motivation,
combining the various aspects that we have so
far been discussing and using two additional
variables in their model.

This is a multi variate model which explains

the relationship that exists between job
attitudes and job performance.
 Porter and Lawler Model
This model is based on 4 basic assumptions about human
behavior:
1. Individual Behavior is determined by a combination of
factors in the individual and in the environment.
2. Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who
make conscious decisions about their behavior in the
organization.
3. Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.
4. On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide
between alternate behaviors and such decided behaviors
will lead to a desired outcome.
Various Elements of this Model
PERCEIVED
EQUITABLE
VALUE OF ABILITY & REWARDS
REWARD TRAITS
(VALENCE)
INTRINSIC
REWARDS

EFFORTS PERFORMANCE
ACCOMPLISHMENT
EXTRINSIC
REWARDS

PERCEIVED
EFFORT
ROLE
REWARD SATISFACTION
PERCEPTION
PROBABILITY
 Various Elements of this Model (Contd)
 Effort- Refers to the amount of energy which a person exerts
on a job.

 Value of Reward- People try to figure out whether rewards

that are likely to be received from doing a job will be attractive
to them. (Valence in Vroom’s Theory).

 Perceived Effort Reward Probability- In addition, before

people put forth any effort, they will also try to assess the
probability of a certain level of effort leading to a desired level
of performance and the possibility of that performance
leading to certain kinds of rewards.
Various Elements of this Model (Contd)
 Performance- Efforts leads to performance. The
expected level of performance will depend upon the
amount of effort, the abilities and traits of the
individual and his role perceptions. Abilities include
knowledge, skills and intellectual capacity to perform
the job.
Various Elements of this Model (Contd)
 Rewards- Performance leads to certain outcomes in
the shapes of two types of rewards namely extrinsic
rewards and intrinsic rewards.

 Extrinsic rewards: External Rewards (money,

recognition or praise)

 intrinsic rewards: Internal feelings (self esteem, sense

of competence.
Various Elements of this Model (Contd)
 Satisfaction-Satisfaction will result from both
extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. However, for
being satisfied, an individual will compare his
actual rewards with the perceived rewards. If
the actual rewards meet or exceed perceived
rewards, the individual will feel satisfied and if
these are less than the equitable rewards, the
individual will feel dissatisfied.
Significance of the Porter & Lawler Model

 Porter & Lawler model is a departure

from the traditional analysis of
satisfaction & performance relationship.

 Motivation is not a simple cause & effect

relationship, rather it is a complex
phenomena.
Significance of the Porter & Lawler Model
This model is of great significance to managers since
it sensitizes them to focus their attention on the
following points to keep their employees motivated:

 Match the abilities & traits of individuals to the

requirements of the job by putting the right person on
the right job.

 Manager should carefully explain to the subordinates

their roles or what they must do to be rewarded.
 Significance
 Prescribe in concrete terms the actual performance
levels (attainable) expected of the individuals.

 To achieve and maintain motivation, the appropriate

reward must be associated with successful
performance

 Make sure that the rewards dispensed are valued by

the employees.