Year I / Semester I

BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel & alloys CHAPTER 9

1
 interlude
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

The story of steel begins long before

bridges, I-beams, and skyscrapers.

It begins in the stars.

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys Metal From Heaven

biz-n-pt
an-bar
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Metal From Heaven

biz-n-pt
an-bar

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Looking Beneath the Feet

Around 2,500 BC, tribesmen in the Near East discovered
another source of dark metallic material hidden
underground.

It looked just like the metal from heaven—and it was, but

something was different. The iron was mixed with stones and
minerals, lumped together as ore.
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
To know steel, we must first understand iron, for the metals are nearly one
and the same. Steel contains an iron concentration of 98 to 99 percent or
more.

STEEL = IRON + CARBON

The remainder is carbon—a small additive that makes a major difference in
the metal’s properties. In the centuries and millennia before the
breakthroughs that built skyscrapers, civilizations tweaked and tinkered
with smelting techniques to make iron, creeping ever closer to steel.

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

Around 1,800 BC, a people along the Black Sea called the
Chalybes wanted to fabricate a metal stronger than bronze—
something that could be used to make unrivaled weapons.

wrought iron

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
Beginning around 500 BC, Chinese metalworkers built seven-
foot-tall furnaces to burn larger quantities of iron and wood. The
material was smelted into a liquid and poured into carved molds,
taking the shape of cooking tools and statues.
cast iron

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
The Chalybes’ wrought iron contained only 0.8 percent
carbon, so it did not have the tensile strength of steel.

Chinese cast iron, with 2 to 4 percent carbon, was more brittle

than steel

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
The smiths of the Black Sea eventually began to insert iron bars
into piles of white-hot charcoal, which created steel-coated
wrought iron.

But a society in South Asia had a better idea.

India would produce the first true steel.

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
Around 400 BC, Indian metalworkers invented a smelting
method that happened to bond the perfect amount of carbon to
iron.
small wrought iron bars + charcoal

sealed the containers and inserted into a furnace.

the wrought iron melted and absorbed the carbon in the
charcoal. ingots of pure steel lay inside.
Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Skyscrapers, but first SWORDS!

Damascus
Steel
Valyrian
Steel Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

Iron and Coal

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Iron and Coal

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Iron and Coal

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys Iron and Coal

Jonathan Schifman
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

After weapons:
“roads to build between cities, bridges to
construct over rivers, and railroad tracks to
lay into the heart of the Wild West”
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

Weapons again!

First world war

Guns, canons, submarines, aircrafts
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Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
It began around the Industrial Revolution, which was
characterized by mass production and the development of new
materials, modern steel included.

One of the first major uses of steel for construction purposes was in
train stations. After the usage there proved profitable, its use
expanded to include churches, private buildings, and more. In the
late 1800s, the first steel-framed buildings and skyscrapers
emerged.
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

The age of

STEEL!
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Towards Steel
After the war, steel was more readily available and became the
universal standard. Some of the most iconic landmarks, like the
Empire State Building, were erected with steel as a main
construction element.

At the end of the 20th century, advanced steel production enabled

railroad construction across the world, expanding new frontiers in
remote locations..
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

The age of

STEEL!
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

The age of

STEEL!
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

The age of

STEEL!
 BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

The age of

Stainless-STEEL!
In 1912, a British metallurgist named Harry Brearly was looking for a
way to preserve the life of gun barrels.

Experimenting with chromium and steel alloys, he found that steel

with a layer of chromium was particularly resistant to acid and
weathering.
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

Steel|Stahliją standing firm

highly elastic, ductile, malleable, a metal made by combining two or more

weldable, high tensile and compression metallic elements, especially to give greater
strength and also stands wear and tear strength or resistance to corrosion
much better.
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Steel|Stahliją standing firm

Steel|Stahliją standing firm

a metal made by combining two or more

metallic elements, especially to give greater
strength or resistance to corrosion
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

alloy is stronger than its two

necessary components VARIATION IN COMPOSITION
ALLOY = BASE + ALLOYING ELEMENT
a metal made by combining two or
VARIATION IN PROPERTIES
more metallic elements, especially
to give greater strength or
resistance to corrosion
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

ALLOY = BASE + ALLOYING ELEMENT

alloy is stronger than its two
necessary components: iron and
carbon VARIATION IN COMPOSITION
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
a metal made by combining two or more VARIATION IN PROPERTIES
metallic elements, especially to give greater
strength or resistance to corrosion

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon.

BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

For example, steel made from iron, chromium, and nickel
produces stainless steel. The addition of aluminum can
make steel more uniform in appearance. Steel with added
manganese becomes exceptionally hard and strong.

VARIATION IN COMPOSITION

STEEL ALLOYS = IRON + OTHER METALS

VARIATION IN PROPERTIES

Alloy steels/ STEEL ALLOYS are so named because they are made with a small
percentage of one or more metals besides iron. The addition of alloys changes the
properties of steels.
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Steel and alloys

Steel is the most commonly used structural metal, due to its various
properties like great strength, good ductility and high strength,
allowing easy fabrication.

ALLOY BASE
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
VARIATION IN COMPOSITION

Steel is the most suitable building material among metallic materials.

This is due to a wide range and combination of physical and mechanical

properties that steels can have.
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Steel and alloys

ALLOY BASE
STEEL = IRON + CARBON
VARIATION IN COMPOSITION

By suitably controlling the carbon content, alloying elements and heat treatment,
a desired combination of hardness, ductility and strength can be obtained in
steel.
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel and alloys

BASE
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

To make different steels, manufacturers vary the type and quantity of alloy
metals, the production process, and the manner in which the steels are worked to
produce particular products.
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Steel : TYPES
According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), steels can be broadly
categorized into four groups based on their chemical compositions:

BASE
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

Carbon Steels Alloy Steels Stainless Steels Tool Steels

BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel : TYPES
Cast Iron: High Carbon, Wrought Iron: Low Carbon,
Good at compressive force Good at tensile force
2-4% 0.05-0.15%

BASE 0.25-1.5%
STEEL = IRON + CARBON

INTERMEDIATE FORM BETWEEN CAST IRON AND WROUGHT IRON

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Steel : TYPES

1. LOW CARBON STEEL | MILD STEEL

BASE 0.15-0.3%
MILD STEEL = IRON + CARBON
• Tough, ductile and malleable
• Easily joined and welded
• Poor resistance to corrosion
• Often used a general purpose material
• Structural Steel used in the construction industry
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Steel : TYPES

2. MEDIUM CARBON STEEL

MEDIUM BASE 0.3-0.8%

CARBON STEEL = IRON + CARBON
• Offer more strength and hardness
• But less ductile and malleable
• Structural steel, rails and garden tools
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Steel : TYPES

3. HIGH CARBON STEEL

BASE 0.8-1.5 %
HARD STEEL = IRON + CARBON
• Also known as ‘tool steel’
• More elastic and tougher than mild steel
• Forged and welded with difficulty
• Readily rusts
• Used for reinforcing cement concrete and prestressed concrete members.
• It can take shocks and vibrations and is used for making tools and machine parts.
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Steel: MANUFACTURING PROCESS

1. Bessemer process
2. Open hearth process
3. Cementation process
4. Crucible process
5. Duplex process
6. L.D. process
7. Electrical process
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Steel: advantages as structural material

1. High strength to low weight -good for long span bridges, tall buildings.
2. Lightweight compared to concrete- can be handled and transported, and
prefabricated.
3. Properly maintained have a long life.
4. Uniformity : properties do not change with time.
5. A ductile material, does not fail suddenly, but gives visible evidence of failure by
large deflections.
6. Additions and alterations can be made easily.
7. They can be erected at a faster rate compared to reinforced concrete.
8. Steel has the highest scrap value.
9. Can be even reuse on demolition.
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Steel : uses in building

Steel can be used for various purposes in building works.

• As structural material in trusses, beams, etc.

• As non-structural material for grills, doors, windows, etc.
• In steel pipes, tanks, etc.
• In sanitary and sewer fittings, rainwater goods, etc.
• Corrugated sheets.
• As reinforcement for concrete.
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Strength
Chemical Ductility
compositio
2.Hardness
Heat
magnetism
treatment
Malleability
durability
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Chemical composition
Carbon content determines the physical properties of steel.
Steels of various grades are obtained by varying the carbon content.

malleability
Carbo ductility
n magnetism
Shock
conten resistance
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Chemical composition

hardness
Carbo Tensile
n Shear strength
strength
Compressive
conten strength
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Chemical composition

Carbo
Modulus of
n elasticity
conten
t
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

impurities
Final product usually includes impurities like silicon,
manganese, sulphur and phosphorus, usually 0.2-1%.

sulphur Up to 1% no effect on strength or ductility. Malleability and weldability

decreased in hot condition. Excessive amount decreases ductility and
strength.

phosphorus Increases fluidity in molten state. Usually amount kept less than 0.12%.
Excessive phosphorus decreases strength, ductility and shock
resistance.

silicon Up to 0.2%, no effect on steel. Up to 0.4%, elasticity and strength are

increased without effect on ductility.

manganese Up to 1%, improves strength. Over 1.5% steel becomes very brittle and
unusable for structural purposes.
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

2. Heat treatment
Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving the
heating and cooling of the metal for the purpose of obtaining desirable
properties.

The treatment consists of heating the metal above critical temperature

maintained for some definite time and finally cooling the metal in some
medium.

The heat treatment process consists in subjecting, a

metal to definite temperature–time course.
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Heat The heat treatment process consists in subjecting, a
metal to definite temperature–time course.

treatment
1. quenching
2. annealing
3. Case hardening
4. tempering
5. normalizing
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Heat The heat treatment process consists in subjecting, a
metal to definite temperature–time course.

treatment
The purposes of heat treatment are as below:

1. To enhance properties such as strength, ductility, hardness and toughness.

2. To relieve internal stresses and strains.
3. To refine the grain.
4. To remove gases.
5. To alter the structure of steel.
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

1. Quenching | hardening
Simply, treatment to make steel hard.

Involves putting heated metal into bath of oil, water or brine. Structural changes in
caused during heating of the metal are permanently trapped by this method.

Quenching Medium: Bath of oil, water, brine: selected according to the degree of
hardness required.

Cooling of heated metal at controlled rate for desired

type of steels.
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

2. annealing
In this process, steel is heated to about 50 degC – 55 degC above its critical
temperature range. The metal is held at this temperature for specified time and
allowed to cool down slowly in the heating furnace.

• Introduces softness, ductility and malleability, improve machining quality.

• Alters electrical, magnetic and other physical properties.
• Produces a definite microstructure and grain refinement.
• Removes gases, refine grains and remove internal stresses.

Process to make steel soft to increase workability!

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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

3. Case hardening
In this process, steel core remains unchanged but the surface becomes hard because of
the increasing carbon content of the surface.

Metal to be treated is held in carburizing mixture for definite time and at a definite
temperature, depending upon the required depth of hardening. (900-930dC| 6-8hrs)

Carburizing mixtures:
• 95% wood charcoal and 5% soda ash.
• Animal charcoal
• Cyanides
• Finely cut leather pieces.

Process to increase carbon content of the steel surface!

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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

4. tempering
Tempering is done on the metals which are already treated with hardening/quenching
process.

Metals quenched in hardening process are reheated to temperature normally below

critical temperature and maintained in that temperature for specified time and
allowed to cool down in still air.

Purposes of Tempering:

• To develop a desirable combination of ductility and hardness.

• To relieve the metal from high internal stresses developed during hardening
process.
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: FACTORS INFLUENCING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

5. NORMALIZING
In this process, steel is heated to temperature ranging from 840 dC – 950 Dc and
allowed to cool in air.

Cooling is rapid, less time for metal to reach equilibrium and obtained metal is harder
than annealed steel.

Purpose:
To obtain uniformity of structure, grain refinement and for other desirable changes in
steel.
BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

Steel : market forms

The following are the various forms in which steel is available in the market:
1. Angle sections
2. Channel sections
3. Corrugated sheets
4. Expanded metal
5. Flat bars
6. I-sections
7. Plates
8. Ribbed-torsteel bars
9. Round bars
10. Square bars
11. T-section
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ALLOY STEEL
ALLOY = BASE + ALLOYING ELEMENT
alloy is stronger than its
two necessary
components: iron and
carbon VARIATION IN COMPOSITION

ALLOY STEEL = IRON + OTHER METALS

a metal made by combining + CARBON
two or more metallic
elements, especially to give
greater strength or resistance VARIATION IN PROPERTIES
to corrosion

N WHEN ALLOYED WITH OTHER NON- FERROUS ME

 BUILDING MATERIALS (BLT 151)

ALLOY STEEL

Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a

variety of elements in total amounts between
1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its
mechanical properties.
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ALLOY STEEL

Every steel is an alloy, but not all steels are

called "alloy steels".

The simplest steels are iron (Fe) alloyed with

carbon (C) (about 0.1% to 1%, depending on type).

However, the term "alloy steel" is the standard

term referring to steels with other alloying
elements added deliberately in addition to the
carbon.
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ALLOY STEEL

The properties desired in a metal to be used

as building material are not present to the
best advantage in any single metal.

To develop specific properties a combination

of metals or metallic substances is done and
are classed as alloys.
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ALLOY STEEL
The important reasons for alloy additions are:

1. To increase the hardenability of steel. The steel in this group are

usually heat treated by quenching and tempering, for it is only this way
that the added expanse of the alloys can be justified through the better
combination of properties that is obtained.

2. To strengthen the steel when it is to be used without special heat

treatment. The steels that fall in this category are designed specifically
for constructional purposes.

3. To confer some special property such as machinability, corrosion

resistance wear resistance, etc.
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ALLOY STEEL
The following is a range of improved properties in alloy steels
(as compared to carbon steels):

strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance,

corrosion resistance, hardenability

To achieve some of these improved properties the metal may

require heat treating.
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ALLOY STEEL

There are two kinds of alloy steel – low-alloy steel and high-alloy steel.

The composition and proportion of alloying elements determine the various

properties of alloy steel.

Low-alloy steels are the ones which have up to 8% alloying elements whereas
high-alloy steels have more than 8% alloying elements.
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ALLOY STEEL
There are around 20 alloying elements that can be added to carbon steel to
produce various grades of alloy steel. These provide different types of
properties. Some of the elements used and their effects include:

Aluminium can rid steel of phosphorous, sulfur and oxygen

Chromium can increase toughness, hardness and wear resistance
Copper can increase corrosion resistance and harness
Manganese can increase high-temperature strength, wear resistance,
ductility and hardenability
Nickel can increase corrosion, oxidation resistance and strength
Silicon can increase magnetism and strength
Tungsten can increase strength and hardness
Vanadium can increase corrosion, shock resistance, strength and
toughness
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ALLOY STEEL
There are hundreds of products that can be manufactured with alloy steels of
varying compositions.

These include alloy steel pipes and tubes, alloy steel plates, sheets
and coils, alloy steel bars, rods and wires, alloy steel forged
fittings, alloy steel butt weld fittings, alloy steel flanges, fasteners
and more.

Alloy steels have many uses in various industries such as automobiles,

mining, machinery and equipment, railways, road construction,
buildings, appliances and off-shore applications.
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LLOY STEEL : USES AND PROPERTIES

The important reasons for alloy additions are: