FOOD SPOILAGE

1
 Proteins
Carbohydrate

Food
Energy

Vitamins Building materials Lipids

Human Growth 2
Microbial Spoilage

3
 BACTERIA

Microbial
Spoilage
YEAST

MOLDS

4
Chemical changes caused by micro organisms

 Degradation of carbohydrates

 Degradation of N- compounds

 Degradation of lipids

 Pectin hydrolysis

5
Metabolism of Food Nutrients

Carbohydrates Food nutrients Lipids

Proteinaceous and
NPN compounds
CO2, H2, H2O2, lactate, CO2, H2, NH3, H2S, Fatty acids, glycerol,
acetate, formate, amines, keto acids, hydroperoxides,
butyrate, isobutyrate, mercaptans, organic carbonyl compounds
isovalerate, ethanol, disufides, putrescine, (aldehydes, and
propanol, butanol, cadaverine, skatole ketones), nitrogenous
isobutanol, diacetyl, bases.
acetoin, butanediol,
dextran, levans.
 Degradation of carbohydrates
Fermentation type Products

Alcoholic Fermentation Ethanol, CO2

Homofermentative lactic acid Fermentation Lactic acid

Heterofermentative lactic acid Fermentation Lactic acid, Acetic acid, Ethanol, CO2

Propionic acid Fermentation Propionic acid, Acetic acid, CO2

Butyric acid Fermentation Butyric acid, Acetic acid, CO2, H2

Mixed acid Fermentation Lactic acid, Acetic acid, CO2, H2, Ethanol

2,3-butanediol Fermentation CO2, Ethanol, 2,3-butanediol , Formic acid

8
 Degradation of N- compounds

Proteolysis

Proteinases Peptidases
Proteins Polypeptides Amino Acids
Putrefaction

Amino Acids Bacterial Cell Volatile products

Cysteine Cysteine H 2S
Methionine desulfhydrase
Tryptophan Methyl mercaptans
Methionine lyase Indole
Lysine Tryptophanase
Arginine Cadaverine
Decarboxylase Putrescine
Histidine
Histamine

9
 Reduction of trimethylamine oxide

trimethylamine oxide trimethylamine

Fishy odor

 Pseudomonas
 Shewanella
 Bacillus
 Clostridium

10
 Degradation of lipids

lipase
Lipids Glycerol + Fatty acid
Lipid oxdase

Aldehyde , ketones

 Pseudomonas
 Micrococcus
 Staphylococcus
 Flavobacterium

11
 Pectin Degradation

Pectin Polygalacturonic acid + Methanol

Galacturonic acid
Apple rot 

Penicillium expansum   Soft and watery Dry and firm

Monilinia fructigena
12
Slime production

EPS
EPS
13
MICROBIAL SPOILAGE – HOW DOES IT MANIFEST ITSELF?

 Visible growth

 Gas production

 Slime

 Enzymes

 Off-flavours

14
15
Food Spoilage
Food spoilage: any change in the
appearance, smell, or taste of a food product
that makes it unacceptable to the consumer.
Spoiled food is not necessarily unsafe to
eat, but pathogenic organisms can cause
food spoilage.
Food spoilage results in economic loss to
producers, distributors, and even consumers.
.
FOOD GROUPS

Highly Perishable
◦ Meat
◦ Fruit
◦ Milk
◦ Vegetables
◦ Eggs
Semi perishable
◦ Potatoes
◦ Nuts
◦ Flour
Stable
◦ Rice
◦ Dry beans

17
Three ways for food to spoil
1. Physiologies /Autolisis
(Natural food enzymes)
2.Microbial factors
3. Other factors
1. Autolysis - enzymes

Enzymes are chemicals that are found in food.

These chemicals have important uses in food. They can
cause food to deteriorate in three main ways:

• ripening – this will continue until the food becomes

inedible, e.g. banana ripening;
• browning – enzymes can react with air causing the skin
of certain foods, e.g. potatoes and apples discolouring;
• oxidation – loss of certain nutrients, such as vitamins
A, C and thiamin from food, e.g. over boiling of green
vegetables.
Natural food enzymes
The discoloration of
fruits and vegetables caused
by enzymes.

Enzyme
A complex protein molecule that
stimulates or speeds up a specific chemical
reaction without being used up itself.
An overview of fruit ripening with particular emphasis on textural softening

Protopectin → Soluble Pectin → Softening

Decomposition (over matured fruit)

21
 Enzymes that cause food spoilage
Enzymes Food Spoilage action
Ascorbic acid Vegetables Destruction of vitamin C
oxidase
Lipase Milk, oils Hydrolytic rancidity
Lipoxygenase Vegetables Destruction of vitamin A
Pectic enzymes Fruits Destruction of pectic substances
(Softening)
Peroxidases Fruits Browning
Polyphenoloxidase Fruits, vegetables Browning, off flavour, vitamin loss
Proteases Eggs Reduction of shelf life
crab, lobster Overtenderization
Flour Reduction in gluten network formation
 
Thiaminase Meats, fish Destruction of thiamine

22
 ENZYMATIC BROWNING
Polyphenol
oxidase

 Hydroxylation of monophenol to o-diphenol Phenolic

substrate

O2
O2 Polyphenol
Phenolicoxidase
O2
substrate
O2
O2 O2 O2

 Dehydrogenation of o- diphenol to o-quinone

23
 RANCIDITY

Hydrolytic Rancidity Oxidative Rancidity

Hydrolytic Rancidity

Triacylglycerol Glycerol Free fatty acids

(Volatile bad odor)

24
Oxidative Rancidity

25
(Baysal and Demirdoven, 2006)
MAILLARD REACTION

Glucosamine
D-glucose Schiff Base
26
Melanoidins (Brown
nitrogenous polymer)
27
2. Microbial factors
Microorganisms which grow and reproduce,
causing unwanted changes to the odor
taste, and texture of the food.
SPOILAGE MICROBES IN FOODS
Bacteria
◦ The Lactic Acid Bacteria (Lactobacillus spp.,
Pediococcus spp., Leuconostoc spp., etc.)
◦ Pseudomonas spp.
◦ Many others
Fungi
◦ Molds and Yeast
 MICROBIAL SPOILAGE -
BACTERIA
present naturally in the environment.
There are many different kinds, some are
useful, e.g. in the production of yogurt, and
some harmful.
Some bacteria produce toxins which can lead
to this also.
Spores can also be produced by some
bacteria leading to toxins being produced.
BACTERIA
Microscopic, single-celled plants which
may be
◦ Oval (cocci)
◦ Rods (bacilli)
◦ Spiral (spirilla)
may also be:
◦ Aerobic – requires oxygen
◦ Anaerobic – does not require oxygen
 MICROBIAL SPOILAGE – YEAST

Yeasts are single celled fungi Yeasts can also

form spores which can travel through the air.
These are easily killed by heating to 100ºC.
In warm, moist conditions in the presence of
sugar, yeasts will cause foods like fruit to
ferment producing alcohol and carbon dioxide
gas.

Yeast is used in the production of bread and

wine.
YEAST

Cause food spoilage and

not foodborne illness.
Grow in a wide range of
foods – high acid, low
moisture.
Produce a smell, bubbling,
or a taste of alcohol when
food spoils.
Easily destroyed by proper
processing. Microbial Hazards 33
 MICROBIAL SPOILAGE - MOULD
Moulds are fungi which grow as filaments in food. They
reproduce by producing spores in fruiting bodies which can
be seen on the surface of foods.

These fruiting bodies sometimes look like round furry blue-

coloured growths, e.g. mould on bread.

Some moulds can be seen by the naked eye, e.g. on

bread.
 MOLDS
Readily recognized by
cottony appearance
Visible to the naked eye
Usually gray, black, bluish,
or even red and orange
Thrive best in dark, damp
places
Easily destroyed by high
heat
 Conditions for bacterial growth

Micro-organisms need conditions to survive and

reproduce. These can include:
• temperature
• moisture
• food
• time
• pH level
• oxygen
FATTOM

1. Food
Bacteria
need a source of food to grow and
multiple, these food usually contain
large amounts of water and nutrients.
High protein food are normally a good
source i.e. meat, poultry, dairy products
(except butter and hard cheese).
Potentially Hazardous Foods (PHF)
Definition: A food that supports growth of
infectious or toxin-producing microorganisms
◦ These are the foods that have all the FAT TOM
requirements for pathogen growth that we just
discussed
Examples of PHF’s:
◦ Raw or cooked foods of animal origin:
 Meat, Poultry, Waterfoods, Eggs, Dairy Products
◦ Some fruit and vegetables (F&V)
Which F&V are PHF’s?
◦ Cut melons
 If intact, bacteria don’t grow on outer surface
 But, when cut, bacteria are “dragged” over cut surface
 And the pH of some melons is >4.6
◦ Heated/cooked fruits and vegetables
 Rice, beans, baked potatoes, etc. after they are cooked
◦ Minimally processed FF&V (i.e., bagged salads)
◦ Seed sprouts

◦ Could a non-PHF cause a foodborne illness?

High, medium and low risk foods
High – Some foods are high-risk, as they provide the ideal conditions needed for micro-
organisms to grow. If these foods become contaminated with food-poisoning micro-
organisms and conditions allow them to multiply, the risk of food-poisoning increases.
foods more prone to bacterial infection, e.g. raw or cooked meats, raw or cooked fish and
shellfish/seafood, eggs, cooked rice and lentils, gravies and soups, milk, tofu, fresh filed
pasta
Medium – foods that may contain pathogenic organisms but will not normally
support their growth; or which are unlikely to contain pathogenic
organisms but may support the formation of them or growth of toxins, e.g.
fruits and vegetables, canned meat, dairy products,orange juice,
pasteurised milk, dairy products, ice cream, peanut butter, and milk-based
confectionery
Low – foods unlikely to contain pathogenic micro-organisms and will not
normally support their growth due to food characteristics, e.g. grains and
cereals, bread, alcohol, carbonated beverages, sugar-based
confectionery and fats and oils
Pasturized Milk
◦ Usually associated with Gram-negative
psychrotrophs
 Bitter, rancid, fruity, or unclean flavor
◦ Gram-positive, psychrotrophic sporeformers
(Bacillus spp.), can grow and cause spoilage
(sweet curdling)
Classification of Bacteria by
Temperature Requirements
PASTEURIZATION
Used for milk, liquid eggs, fruit juices
and beer.
Destroy pathogens
Reduce microbial load   (numbers)
Inactivate enzymes
Extend shelf life
 Pasteurization

 1861Pasteurization is
invented by Louis
Pasteur
◦ Milk is heated above
145° F for at least 30
minutes, and then
quickly cooled.
Pasteurizing
Heating the raw milk to kill all
pathogenic microoranisms that may be
present
Not sterilization
After pasteurization some harmless
bacteria may still be present
◦ these are the bacteria that cause milk to go
sour
◦ Refrigeration is the best way to slow the
growth of these organisims
Pasteurization, a process involving brief exposure to
temperatures below the boiling point of water,
reduces the total microbial population and thereby
increases the shelf life of the treated material;

1. Low-temperature long-term (LTLT) pasteurization-

63ºC for 30 min

2. High-temperature short-term (HTST) flash

pasteurization-72ºC for 15 sec

3. Ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurization-140º

to 150ºC for 1 to 3 sec
Pasteurization and….

Pasteurization must be combined with another

barrier
Refrigeration
Fermentation
Additives (Anti-microbial agents)
Low pH
Pasteurizing
 Low Temperture Longer Time (LTLT)
◦ Heats milk to at least 145 degrees F for at least 30 minutes
◦ Can cause a “cooked” flavor
◦ Not used by some milk plants for fluid milk products
 High Temperture/Short Time (HTST)
◦ Heats milk to at least 161 degrees F for at least 15 seconds
◦ Milk is immediately cooled to below 40 degrees F and
packaged in plastic jugs or plastic coated cartons
 Ultrapasteurization
◦ Heating milk to 280 degrees F or higher for 2 seconds
followed by rapid cooling to 45 degrees or less
 Ultrahigh Temperture Processing
◦ Sterilizes the milk
◦ Heats it to 280-302 degrees for 2 to 6 seconds
◦ Milk is aseptically packaged and does not require
refrigeration until it is opened
Commercial Sterilization of Foods
•resistant to environmental stress such as heat
(boiling), acid, irradiation, chemicals and disinfectants.

•Some endospores have remained dormant for 25

million years preserved in amber, only to be shaken
back into life when extricated and introduced into a
favorable environment.
Food with vegetative cells and
spore cells

Only spores survive when food is heated

(cooked) to 165 °F and then held >140°F

Spores can become vegetative

cells again if food is not
Spore
cooled properly
Vegetative
Cell
Vegetative cells grow to Growth
high numbers and some
Toxin
produce toxins
The sequential steps in the process of endospore
formation in Bacillus subtilis.
•Endospores differ from the vegetative cells that form
them in a variety of ways.

•Several new surface layers develop outside the core

(cell) wall, including the cortex and spore coat.

•The cytoplasm is dehydrated and contains only the

cell genome and a few ribosomes and enzymes.

•The endospore is cryptobiotic (exhibits no signs of

life).
Life Cycle of
Spore-forming Bacterium

A vegetative cell about to enter the endospore cycle:

cell wall

nucleoid cytoplasmic
membrane
 Replication of the nucleoid
cell wall

No
attachment
of nucleoid to
membrane

nucleoid cytoplasmic
membrane

A spore septum forms

cell wall spore septum

No
invagination of
cell wall

nucleoid cytoplasmic
membrane
 Each nucleoid becomes surrounded by its own cytoplasmic membrane.
cytoplasmic
membrane

nucleoid

The cytoplasmic membrane of the mother cell surrounds the isolated nucleoid, cytoplasm,
and membrane of the daughter cell, forming a forespore.
cytoplasmic
nucleoid membrane
The forespore is completed and the other molecule of DNA is degraded.

Inner
forespore
membrane

nucleoid

Outer
forespore
membrane
A thick protective layer of peptidoglycan called the cortex is synthesized between the
inner and outer forespore membranes.

Calcium dipicolinate is synthesized and incorporated into the forming endospore.

Inner
forespore
membrane

nucleoid

Outer
forespore
membrane
Another protective layer called the spore coat, composed of protein, is synthesized.

The spore coat is rich in hydrophobic amino acids which exclude water and in cysteine
residues, which form disulfide bonds to protect against heat.

The outer spore membrane is degraded, so that the spore coat is the most exterior
layer.

Inner
forespore
membrane

spore coat

cortex
nucleoid
As the vegetative portion of the bacterium is degraded, the completed spore is
released.
(Sometimes a final layer called the exosporium is added.)

Degraded vegetative bacterium

cortex
spore coat

exosporium

nucleoid
Medically-important Endospore-forming
Bacteria
Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax
Bacillus cereus causes food poisoning
Clostridium tetani causes tetanus
Clostridium botulinum causes botulism
Clostridium perfringens causes food poisoning
and gas gangrene
Clostridium difficile causes antibiotic-induced
diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis
Some sporeformers are pathogens of animals,
usually due to the production of powerful toxins.

Bacillus anthracis causes anthrax, a disease of

domestic animals (cattle, sheep, etc.) which may
be transmitted to humans.

Clostridium botulinum causes botulism, a form of

food poisoning. Clostridium tetani is the agent of
tetanus.
From Spore to Vegetative Cell

Dormant spore activated

◦ Heat, Redox, pH
Activated spore germinates
◦ Nutrients needed
Metabolic activity increases
Outgrowth
◦ Spore coat broken down; water absorbed
Synthesis of macromolecules
◦ DNA, RNA, protein
◦ Now a vegetative cell
Protective Effects of
Food Constituents
Sugar protects bacterial spores in
canned fruit
Starch & protein protect spores
Fats & Oils protect bacterial spores
Control of Microbial Growth:
D efinitions
Sterilization: Killing or removing all forms of microbial
life (including endospores) in a material or an object.
Heating is the most commonly used method of
sterilization.
Commercial Sterilization: Heat treatment that kills
endospores of Clostridium botulinum the causative agent
of botulism, in canned food.
Does not kill endospores of thermophiles, which are not
pathogens and may grow at temperatures above 45oC.
 Control of Microbial Growth
 Terminology:

Sterilization – destruction of all forms of

microbial life, including endospores.

Commercial Sterilization – sufficient heat

treatment to kill endospores of Clostridium
botulinum in canned food.
◦ More-resistant endospores of thermophilic
bacteria may survive, but will not germinate and
grow under normal storage conditions.
Degrees of Preservation

Sterilization
Complete destruction of
microorganisms
 121oC (250oF) for 15 minutes (internal temp)
Commercially Sterile
All pathogenic & toxin-forming
organisms are dead (applies to most
preserved foods)
Selecting Heat Treatments
Heat that is sufficient to destroy all
microorganisms and enzymes is
detrimental to other food quality
factors such as:
 Color
 Flavor
 Texture
 Nutrition
 Consistency
To pick the “right” heat treatment severity for a
specific food you must determine...

 Time/temperature combination
required to inactivate the most
resistant microbe
 Heat penetration characteristics of
◦ the food (varies with consistency, particle
size)
◦ the container (varies with size, shape,
material)
Factors to be Considered
Species of the microorganism of concern.
Vegetative cells or spores.
Product composition; pH
Water activity
Other food components; salt
Environmental conditions; aerobic or
anaerobic.
2. acidity level
An
acidic or alkaline environment can promote
or inhibit microbial growth. Most bacteria
prefer a neutral pH (6.6 – 7.5). Moulds and
yeasts can survive at pH levels of 1-1/5
(very acidic), food spoilage usually occurs
by yeast and moulds.
  Acidity (pH)

Microorganisms are able to grow in an environment with a

specific pH

Microoganism Min. pH value Opt. pH value Max. pH value

s
Gram +ve 4.0 7.0 8.5
bacteria
Gram –ve 4.5 7.0 9.0
bacteria
Yeasts 2.0 4.0- 6.0 8.5- 9.0
Molds 1.5 7.0 11.0
Food classification
 Low acid food pH > 4.6
Examples: sweet potatoes, carrots,
beets, green beans, spinach, apsragus,
peas, meat, corn, fish.
Acid food pH  4.6
Examples: tomatoes, apricots, pears,
pineapple, cherries, plums, sauerkraut,
berries.
Food Processing Requirements Based Upon
Acidity (pH)

Acidity Food Spoilage Processing

Class pH Group Agent Required
Low 7.0 Meat Mesophilic High Temp
Acid Fish Spore-forming 116o-121oC
o 0
Milk Anaerobs 240 -250 F
Poultry
6.0 Vegetables Thermophiles
Soups
 Food Processing Requirements
Based Upon Acidity (pH)
Acidity Food Spoilage Processing
Class pH Group Agent Required
Acid 4.5 Fruits Aciduric, Boiling
Berries spore-forming water
and non spore- 100oC
o
forming (212 F)
bacteria
 Food Processing Requirements
Based Upon Acidity (pH)
Acidity Food Spoilage Processing
Class pH Group Agent Required
High 3.0 Pickled Yeasts, molds Boiling
Acid foods, water
o
jams, 100 C
o
jellies (212 F)
 Bacteria and Temperature
Bacteria die if
100 heated
• Pathogenic bacteria grow best at for a sufficient
human body temperature 37ºC. time.
However the majority will grow The longer the
between 15-45ºC time, the
63 greater the
• Non-sporing cells of bacteria are destruction
40
killed at temperatures above 60ºC. 38 Bacte
The length of time ria Bacteria
Bacteria Grow
ranges depending on the organism grow grow at slower
• Boiling kills living cells, but will not quickl rate
y
kill all bacterial spores 36
15
• Fridges should be set below 5ºC. 7
Some bacteria such as Listeria Bacteria stop
monocytogenes can grow at growing,
4 but do not die
refrigeration temperatures
0
The Ten Main Reasons for Food Poisoning

1. Food prepared too far in advance and stored at room

temperature.
2. Cooling food too slowly prior to refrigeration.
3. Not reheating food to a high enough temperature to destroy
food poisoning bacteria.
4. The use of cooked food contaminated with food poisoning
bacteria.
5. Undercooking.
6. Not thawing frozen poultry for sufficient time.
7. Cross-contamination from raw food to cooked food.
8. Storing hot food below 63ºC.
9. Infected food handlers.
10. Use of leftovers.
4. Time
One bacterium
can divide into two every 20 minutes.
Food where bacteria rapidly multiple in
are called perishable foods.
5. Oxygen

Some bacteria need oxygen to grow and

multiply. These are called aerobic bacteria.
Other bacteria grow well when there is no
oxygen present, these are known as
anaerobic bacteria.
 Oxygen Concentration
need prefer ignore oxygen is < 2 – 10%
oxygen oxygen oxygen toxic oxygen

Figure 6.15
6. Moisture
Where there is no moisture bacteria cannot grow. However,
bacteria and
moulds can both produce spores which can survive until
water is added
to the food. Dried foods, or those with high sugar or salt
content will not
support bacterial growth. Bacteria remain dormant.
  It is a ratio of water vapour pressure of the food
substance to the vapour pressure of pure water at the
same temperature.

 Water activity (aw) = P/ Pw where P= water vapour

pressure of the food substance and Pw= water vapour
pressure of pure water (Pw = 1.00).

Microoganisms Minimum water activity (aw)

values
Gram +ve bacteria 0.95
Gram –ve bacteria 0.91
Yeasts 0.88
Molds 0.80
EFFECT OF WATER ACTIVITY ON THE
GROWTH
Practically, apart from a few osmophilic yeasts and
xerophilic fungi, below the aw of 0.7 there is no
Water activity
microbial growth.
In the food microbiology, this aw=0.7 is the critical
value. However, it is important to emphasize that,
even if active growth is impossible, survival may still
occur and many microorganisms can survive at very
low water activities and are frequently stored in
culture collections in this form
Conditions for Spoilage

•Water
•pH
•Physical structure
•Oxygen
•temperature
Microorganism Growth in Foods
Significance of Microbial Types
 Raw and most processed foods normally contain many
types of
◦ bacteria (the first important component in spoilage due to a
shorter generation time),
◦ yeasts (favorable positions over molds to cause rapid spoilage of
foods),
◦ molds,
capable of multiplying and causing spoilage.
 However, in food where bacteria and yeasts do not grow
favorably and the foods are stored for a relatively longer
period of time (breads, hard cheese, fermented dry
sausages, and acidic fruits and vegetables) spoilage due
to mold growth is more prevalent.
Significance of Microbial Numbers
The spoilage detection level can range
from 106 – 108 cells/g, mL or square
centimeter.
Spoilage associated with H2S, some
amines, and H2O2 formation can be
detected at a lower microbial load, while
formation of lactic acid may be detected
at a higher microbial load.
Microorganisms live in mixed communities

Many interactions are cooperative

Waste of one organism represents a nutrient for another

Some cells compete for nutrients

Synthesize toxic substance to inhibit growth of competitors
Prevention of spoilage
Knowing types of microorganisms
associated with spoilage of specific foods
is essential for developing preventive
measures
Intrinsic and extrinsic factors can be
manipulated to prevent microbial growth
Summary of bacterial pathways leading to spoilage aroma and flavor compounds of wine

100
 Off flavor Chemical compounds Food
Fishy Trimethylamine Meat, egg, fish
Garlic Dimethyl trisulphide Wine, fish, meat, milk
Onion Dimethyl disulphide
Cabbage Dimethyl sulphide
Fruity Esters Milk, fish, wine
Potato 2-methoxy-3- Meat, egg, fish
isopropylpyrazine
Alcoholic Ethanol Fruit juices,
mayonnaise
Musty odour Trichloroanisole Bread, wine
Cheesy odour Diacetyl, acetoin Meat
Medicinal odor 2-methoxy phenol Juice, wine
Souring Acetic acid, lactic acid, Wine, bear, dairy
citric acid
Texture problem Chemical Food
Slime Polysaccharide Meat, juices, wine,
confectionery
Softening Pectin degradation Fruits and vegetable
Curdling Lactic acid Milk
Holes Carbon dioxide Hard cheese

Visual problems Chemical Food

Bloaters Gas production Fermented cucumber
Holes Gas production Hard cheese
Can swelling Gas production Canned foods
 Conclusion

Foods spoil due to physical, chemical and microbial

degradation with their metabolites being the cause of
the off-flavours or the textural changes resulting in
sensory rejection.
These factors are interrelated, as certain
temperatures and oxygen and moisture levels
increase the activities of endogenous enzymes and of
microbes.

Which microorganisms will develop or what

(bio)chemical reactions occur is dependant upon
food derived or environmental factors. 103
Food Preservation
So, how does food preservation work?
All of the food preservation processes work by
slowing down the activity and growth of disease
causing bacteria, or by killing the bacteria all
together. They also slow down or stop the action of
enzymes which can degrade the quality of the food.


◦ Temperature
◦ Water Activity
◦ pH
104

© 2007 Institute of Food Technologists

 Food preservation
Temperature based:
 Chilling
 Refrigeration
 Freezing
 Pasteurization
 Canning
Water activity reduction
 Dehydration
 Addition of salts and sugars
Fermentation
Treatment with chemicals

10/22/2009 105
Goals for Food
Preservation
Safety: Remove potential hazards

• Microbiological: pathogenic microorganisms

– kill and/or prevent growth
Question you will have to answer:
What makes this product safe?
Goals for Food
Preservation
Sensory: Preserve desirable appearance,
texture, flavor and odor. Increase shelf-life
by destroying spoilage microorganisms and
enzymes, stabilizing emulsions, reducing
browning etc.

Nutrition: Minimize nutrient losses

Pasturized Milk
◦ Usually associated with Gram-negative
psychrotrophs
 Bitter, rancid, fruity, or unclean flavor
◦ Gram-positive, psychrotrophic sporeformers
(Bacillus spp.), can grow and cause spoilage
(sweet curdling)
Examples of Process Times

Initial Temp 307x409 cans

Min @ Min @
116oC 121oC
o o
Product C F (240oF) (250oF)
Green Beans 21 70 21 12
Lima Beans 21 70 40 20
Corn, cream 71 160 100 80
Corn, whole 38 100 55 30
Peas 21 70 36 16
Pumpkin 71 160 80 65
 Milk and Milk Products
Raw Milk
◦ Microbiota of milk from healty cows
 Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, Lactic acid cocci (Lactococcus and
Streptococcus)
◦ Microbiota of milk from cows with mastitis
 Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Coliforms,
Pseudomonas, and other streptococci
 Count > 103 in the bulk tank (if not separated)
◦ Spoilage of refrigerated milk consists usually of bitter, rancid,
fruity flavors due to putrefaction and caused by psychrotrophs
◦ Spoilage of milk at room consists usually of souring due to
fermentation and LAB
Margin of Safety
Unknowns in raw foods, especially
those which are low acid:
◦ types of microbes present
◦ number of microbes present
Therefore assume:
◦ C. botulinum to be present in large numbers
Microbial Growth in Succesion
The intrinsic factors or environments of a
food dictate which, among the mixed
microbial species normally present, will
multiply rapidly and become predominant
to cause spoilage.
If sufficient time is given, the
predominant microbial types and the
nature spoilage of a food can change.
Spoilage of Specific Food
Groups
Fresh and Ready to Eat Meat Products
Raw Meat
◦ From animals and birds contain a large group of
spoilage bacteria
◦ The predominant spoilage flora in a meat is
determined by :
 the nutrient and oxygen availability,
 storage temperature,
 pH,
 the storage time of the product
 generation time of the spoilage microorganisms under a given
environment.
Meat are more perishable than other food commodities
◦ Abundance all nutrients required for growth of bacteria, yeasts
and molds
◦ All of these nutrients readily available
◦ Carcasses and cuts may be spoiled by bacteria or by molds
 Whiskers (Mucor, Rhizopus), black or green spots (Cladosporium,
Penicillium)
◦ Ground meats and steaks are almost exclusively spoiled by
bacteria
 Storage temperature selects for psychrotropic spoilage organisms
 Pseudomonas, Moraxella, Acinetobacter, Psychrobacter
 Steaks tend to undergo surface spoilage
Ready to Eat Meat Products
◦ High heat processed uncured and cured meat products
(heat treatment to make them commercially sterile)
◦ Low heat processed uncured and cured meat products
◦ Sources of microorganisms :
 Raw meat
 Spices and other ingredients
 Natural casings
Spoilage in ready to eat meat products :
◦ Slimy spoilage
 Occurs on the outside of casing
 Yeast, LAB, B. thermosphacta

◦ Souring
 Occurs underneath the casing
 Due to growth of LAB

◦ Greening
 Due to H2O2 production (Lactobacillus)
 Due to H2S production
 Reacts with myoglobin to form sulphmyoglobin
 Pseudomonas mephitica
Eggs and Egg Products
Rotting
◦ Green rots (Pseudomonas fluorescens)
◦ Colorless rots (Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter)
◦ Black rots (Proteus)
◦ Pink rots (Pseudomonas)
◦ Red rots (Serratia)
◦ Custard rots (Proteus vulgaris, P.
intermedium)
Pinspots (molds, Penicillium,
Cladosporium, Mustiness, P. graveolans,
Proteus)
Hen’s egg structure includes barriers against
microbial entry and growth :
◦ External
 Outer waxy shell membrane
 Shell
 Inner shell membrane
◦ Internal (white)
 Lysozyme
 Avidin (chelates biotin)
 High pH (~ 9.3)
 Conalbumen (chelates iron)
◦ Yolk is an excellent medium for bacterial growth
 Vegetables and Fruits
Widely varied products (raw, frozen, canned,
dehydrated, fermented)
Sources of m.o in fresh vegetables and fruits
◦ Soil (Bacillus, Clostridium, fungi)
◦ Wide distribution in nature (Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc,
Streptococcus)
◦ Fertilizers (non-fermented manure)
◦ Water (irigation, solvent, washing)
◦ Dust (air)
◦ Animals, insects, humans
◦ Harvesting equipment and utensils
◦ Packing equipment
◦ Ice, transporting vehicles, inadequate storages, cross
contamination, handling previous to consumption
 Typesof spoilage on
vegetables and fruits
◦ Bacterial soft rot
 Soft, mushy product,
sometimes with off-odors
◦ Souring by LAB
◦ Gray mold rot (Botrytis
sp.), Rhizopus soft rot
(Rhizopus sp.) and many
other rots caused by
species of molds
◦ Bacteria are of less
impotance in the spoilage
of fruits because of the
lower pH
 Fish, Crustaceans, and Mollusks
Fish
◦ Microbial spoilage is determined by the microbial types, their
level, fish environment, fish types, methods used for harvest,
and subsequent handling
Crustaceans
◦ Microbial spoilage in shrimp is more prevalent than that of
crabs and lobsters because crabs and lobsters remain alive
until they are pocessed
Mollusks
◦ As compared to fish and crustaceans, oyster, clam, and scallop
meats are lower in NPN compounds but higher in
carbohydrates
◦ The mollusks are kept alive until processed; thus, microbial
food spoilage occurs only after processing
 Soft Drink, Fruit Juices and Preserves,
and Vegetable Juices
Among the microorganisms that can be present in these
products, only aciduric molds, yeasts, and bacteria
(Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Acetobacter) are able
to cause spoilage if appropriate preservation methods
are not used
To prevent of these potential spoilage microorganisms,
several additional preservation methods are used,
include :
◦ heat treatment, to kill vegetative microorganisms in tomato
juices,
◦ freezing,
◦ refrigeration,
◦ addition of specific chemical preservatives.
(Harmayani & Sumedi, 2006)
 Cereals and Their Products
 Cereal grains
◦ If the Aw increase above 0.6, some species of fungi (Aspergillus,
Penicillium, and Rhizopus) can grow and cause spoilage
◦ Yeats are common on all cereals, although they represent only a minority
of the microbial flora
 Refrigerated Dough (biscuits, roles, and pizza)
◦ Susceptible to spoilage (gas formation) from the growth of psychrotrophic
heterolactic species of Lactobacillus and Leuconostoc then the gas can
blow the containers, especially when the storage temperature increases to
100C or above
 Breads
◦ A specific type of bread spoilage, designated as ropiness and characterized
by soft, stringy, brown mass with fruity odor, caused by the growth of
some mucoid variants of Bacillus subtilis
Pastas
◦ Anaerobic packing and refrigeration storage can
prevent mold growth and slow down the growth of
yeasts, anaerobic and facultative anaerobic
psychrotrophic bacteria
Pastries
◦ They can spoilage by microorganisms coming with
the ingredients that are added after baking such as
icing, nuts, toppings, and cream
◦ Due to low Aw, most products will allow only molds
to grow
Liquid Sweeteners and Confectioneries
Most of these products have an Aw of 0.8
or below and are normally not susceptible
to bacterial spoilage.
Under aerobic conditions, some
xerophilic molds can produce visible
spoilage
Osmophilic yeasts Zygosaccharomyces
rouxii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
Torulopsis holmii, and Candida valida can
ferment these products
Mayonnaise, Salad Dressing, and
Condiments
Zygosaccharomyces bailii
Lactobacillus fructivorans
Bacillus vulgatus (Thousand Island
dressing)
Canned Foods
Thermophilic sporeformers
◦ Can cause some types of spoilage of low acid (high
pH) foods (such as corn, beans, peas) when the cans
are temperature abused at 430C and above, even for
short duration
Spoilage due to insufficients heating
◦ Clostridium and some Bacillus spp.
Spoilage due to container leakage
◦ Damage and leakly containers will allow different
types of microorganisms to get inside from the
environment after heating
Fermented Foods
Fermented meat products
◦ If the acid production of homofermentative LAB is
slow, undesirable bacteria can grow (Clostridium,
Bacillus, and other mesophilic bacteria have been
reported to cause spoilage in such conditions.
◦ Products with pH < 5.0 but Aw 0.92 or above and
vacuum packaged can be spoiled by
heterofermentative Leuconostoc and Lactobacillus
spp. with accumulation of gas and liquid inside the
package and creamy white growth of bacterial cells
◦ If they are not vacuum packaged and have low Aw
(0.72-0.90), yeast and molds can grow on the surface,
resulting in slime formation, discoloration, and
undesirable flavor of the products.
Yeast In Specific Types of Foods
Yeast will actually grow to the extent that
spoilage will result depends on intrinsic and
extrinsic factors
Many yeast species are associated with plant
and animal products and can also be found in
food-processing environments
Yeast are most likely to cause spoilage in
products such as fruits and soft drinks, which
contain fermentable sugars, and in those types of
food, e.g., alcoholic beverages and high-sugar
and/or high-acidity products, which restrict the
growth of competing bacteria
 Food fermented with mixed cultures
of bacteria and fungi
Products Molds Yeasts Bacteria Substrate Use
Ragi Amylomyces rouxii Endomyces spp. Pediococcus pentosaceus Uncoked rice Inoculum
Pichia burtonii Steptococus faecalis

Peuyem A.rouxii P.Burtonii P.Pentosaceus cassava Snack

Endomycopsis fibulinger Enterococcus faecalis

Miso Aspergillus oryzae Zygosaccharomyces P.Halophilus Soybean Flavoring

A.sojae rouxii E.faecalis + rice/barley
T.versatilis

Soy A.Oryzae Zy.rouxii, Zy.sojae, Lactobacillus delbrueckii Soybean Flavoring

A.Sojae group Zy.major, Ha. Spp., P.halophilus +wheat
sauce Torulopsis spp., P.damnosus +salt
C.etchellsii, C.versatilis

Sake A.oryzae Ha.anomala Lactobacillus mesenteroides Rice Liquor

S.Cerevisiae (sake) var.sake
Lactobacillus sake

Tempe Rhizopus oligosporus Trp.beigelii Klebsiella pneumoniae Mostly Protein

R.chinensis Cla.lusitaniae Enterobacter cloacae soybeans food
R.Oryzae C.maltosa Lactobacillus spp. snack
Mucor indicus C.intermedia
Ya.lipolytica

(Deak dan Beuchat, 1996)

 Food Types of Spoilage Spoilage Microorganisms
Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Proteus,
Putrefaction
Alcaligenes, Chromobacterium
Fresh
Chromobacterium, Lactobacillus,
Souring
Pseudomonas
MEAT Mouldy Penicillium, Aspergillus, Rhizopus
Cured Souring Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Bacillus
Slimy Leuconostoc
Vacuum Souring Lactobacillus, Carnobacterium,
Packed Greening Leuconostoc
Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Xanthomonas
Poultry Odor, Slime

134
An overview of fruit ripening with particular emphasis on textural softening

Protopectin → Soluble Pectin → Softening

Decomposition (over matured fruit)

135
Food Types of Spoilage Spoilage Microorganisms
Bitterness Pseudomonas spp.

MILK Souring Lactobacillus thermophilus

Sweet curdling Bacillus cereus

Green discoloration Penicillium
DAIRY
Green to black discoloration Cladosporium
CHEESE Black discoloration Candida
Sliminess (high pH) Pseudomonas spp.
“Gassy” cheese Coliforms, LAB, Clostridia

Discoloration Pseudomonas
Fish Chromobacterium,
Putrefaction
Halobacterium, Micrococcus
Green rot Pseudomonas
Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes,
Colorless rot
Eggs Chromobacterium
Black rot Coliforms
Fungal rot Proteus, Penicillium, Mucor
136
 Food Types of Spoilage Spoilage Microorganisms
Erwinia carotovera, Pseudomonas
Bacterial soft rot
spp.
Gray mould rot Botryitis cinerea

FRESH FRUITS AND Rhizopus soft rot Rhizopus nigrican

VEGETABLES
Blue mould rot Penicillium italicum

Black mould rot Aspergillus niger, Alternaria

Sliminess and Souring Saprophytic bacteria

Bacillus coagulans, B.
Flat Sour
sterothermophilus
Thermophillic acid Clostridium thermosacchrolyticum
Canned food Sulphide stinker Clostridium nigrificans
Butyric acid fermentation C. butyricum
Softening of fruits Byssochlamys fulva
Yeast and molds
Sliminess

Wine Off Flavor, bitterness Acetobactor, Oenococcus 137

Foods are not only nutritious to consumers, but are also
excellent source of nutrients for microbial growth.
Depending upon the microorganisms present, foods may spoil
or preserved by fermentation.
Microorganisms can be used to transform raw foods into
fermented delights, including yoghurt, cheese, sausages,
tempeh, pickles, wine, beers and other alcoholic products.
On the other hand, foods also can act as a reservoir for
disease transmission, and thus detection and control of
pathogens and spoilage organisms are important areas of food
microbiology. During the entire sequence of food handling from
the producer to the final consumer, microorganisms can affect
food quality and human health.

138
 Conclusion

Foods spoil due to physical, chemical and microbial degradation with their
metabolites being the cause of the off-flavours or the textural changes resulting in
sensory rejection.

These factors are interrelated, as certain temperatures and oxygen and moisture
levels increase the activities of endogenous enzymes and of microbes.

Which microorganisms will develop or what (bio)chemical reactions occur is

dependant upon food derived or environmental factors.

139
What are Food-Borne Diseases?

People get sick with a food-borne disease when they

consume foods or beverages contaminated with
disease-causing microbes, chemicals, insects or other
harmful substances.

Bacteria, viruses and parasites cause most of these

diseases. Toxins, poisons and chemicals can also
contaminate food and cause illness.
 Foodborne disease

Outbreaks
two or more individuals who had a
similar illness after consuming a
common foodstuff

Cases
a single ill person
 Foodborne diseases
Disease transmitted to humans by
eating contaminated food.
Outbreak
Development of a foodborne illness by
two or more people that ate a common
food.
 Cross-Contamination

Transfer of harmful micro-organisms

from one food to another by means of
foods or nonfoods such as utensils,
equipment or human contact.
Perceived Risk from Food:
% Viewing as a Serious Hazard
Major social impact of food borne
disease…
Lost productivity time
◦ Days work/school
◦ Financial impact
Risk of mortality
Risk of transmission to family and others
 The Food Pathogen Problem

Estimates of foodborne disease in U.S./yr:

◦ 6.5 to 33 MILLION foodborne illnesses
◦ Up to 9,000 deaths
◦ Hospitalization costs -- > $3 billion
◦ Lost productivity -- > $9 billion
◦ Under-reported!

Adapted from: Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. Foodborne

Pathogens: Risks and Consequences, 1994.
 Foodborne pathogens

It can be classified into three forms:

foodborne intoxication

foodborne infection

foodborne toxicoinfection
1. INFECTION
◦ Ingestion of MICROBES IN FOOD causes
illness. The microbes cause disease by:
 Invasive (Invasion of the gut/body)
or
 Toxicoinfection (Toxin production in the GI tract
(termed a “toxin-mediated INFECTION”)
2. INTOXICATION
◦ Ingestion of FOOD CONTAINING
TOXIN causes illness
◦ Microbes produce toxin while growing in
food
 Ingestion of the microbes themselves
may be harmless
◦ Also: Chemical contamination of food
such as pesticides
Insert figure 26.31
Food-borne illnesses

151
The Ten Main Reasons for Food Poisoning

1. Food prepared too far in advance and stored at room

temperature.
2. Cooling food too slowly prior to refrigeration.
3. Not reheating food to a high enough temperature to destroy
food poisoning bacteria.
4. The use of cooked food contaminated with food poisoning
bacteria.
5. Undercooking.
6. Not thawing frozen poultry for sufficient time.
7. Cross-contamination from raw food to cooked food.
8. Storing hot food below 63ºC.
9. Infected food handlers.
10. Use of leftovers.
High, medium and low risk foods
High – Some foods are high-risk, as they provide the ideal conditions needed for micro-
organisms to grow. If these foods become contaminated with food-poisoning micro-
organisms and conditions allow them to multiply, the risk of food-poisoning increases.
foods more prone to bacterial infection, e.g. raw or cooked meats, raw or cooked fish and
shellfish/seafood, eggs, cooked rice and lentils, gravies and soups, milk, tofu, fresh filed
pasta
Medium – foods that may contain pathogenic organisms but will not normally
support their growth; or which are unlikely to contain pathogenic
organisms but may support the formation of them or growth of toxins, e.g.
fruits and vegetables, canned meat, dairy products,orange juice,
pasteurised milk, dairy products, ice cream, peanut butter, and milk-based
confectionery
Low – foods unlikely to contain pathogenic micro-organisms and will not
normally support their growth due to food characteristics, e.g. grains and
cereals, bread, alcohol, carbonated beverages, sugar-based
confectionery and fats and oils
Food poisoning and bacteria
There are thousands of cases of food poisoning each year, many of which are not reported or
recorded in official statistics.
Food poisoning may result from poor domestic food preparation, or poor food processing in
industry.
This may result in loss of business and people’s jobs if it is a serious outbreak.
Micro-organisms occur naturally in the environment, on cereals, vegetables, fruit, animals,
people, water, soil and in the air.
Most bacteria are harmless but a small number can cause illness.
Food which is contaminated with food poisoning micro-organisms can look, taste and smell
normal.
People at high risk
Elderly people, babies and anyone who is ill or pregnant needs to be extra careful about the
food they eat. For example, pregnant women or anyone with low resistance to infection
should avoid high risk foods such as unpasteurised soft cheese.
Symptoms of food poisoning
Food poisoning can be mild or severe.
The symptoms will be different depending on
what type of bacteria is responsible.

Common bacteria causing food poisoning include:

• Campylobacter
• E Coli 0157
• Salmonella
• Staphylococcus aureus
• Listeria Monocytogenes
• Bacillus cereus
Bacteria Sources Symptoms
Salmonella Chicken, Eggs, Pies, Sausages, Headache, Fever, Vomiting, Abdominal
Faeces, Sewage, Unwashed pain, Aching of limbs, Diarrhoea
vegetables
Escherichia Coli (E Raw meat, dairy products Vomiting, Diarrhoea (may contain blood),
Coli) 0157 Fever, Headache
Staphylococcus Nose, Skin, Cuts, Cooked meat, Pies, Severe vomiting, Diarrhoea, Exhaustion
Aureus Dairy products (Custard, Ice Cream)

Bacillus Cereus Rice, Gravy, Cream, Sausages, Cured Vomiting, Diarrhoea, Abdominal pain
meat, Faeces

Campylobacter Poultry, Raw meat, Unpasteurised
milk
Listeria Water, Soil, Manure, Milk and its
Monocytegenes products, Soft cheeses, Pate, Cook-
chill foods, Ready made salads
Profuse diarrhoea (may contain blood),
Abdominal pain, Nausea,
Exhaustion
Flu-like symptoms, Miscarriage, Blood
poisoning, Pneumonia
Meningitis
THANK YOU

157