UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY 2018

HOW DOES EXPERIENCE

AFFECT BEHAVIOUR AND
M E N TA L P R O C E S S E S ?
AOS2: HOW DO PEOPLE
LEARN AND REMEMBER?

IN THIS AREA OF STUDY STUDENTS STUDY THE

NEURAL BASIS OF MEMORY AND LEARNING AND
E XAM INE FACTO RS T H AT I NFL UE NCE T HE L E ARNING
O F N E W B E H AV I O U R S A N D T H E S T O R A G E A N D
R E T E N T I O N O F I N F O R M AT I O N I N M E M O RY. T H E Y
CONSIDER THE INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL,
PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS ON THE
FA L L I B I L I T Y O F M E M O RY.
STUDY DESIGN

• In this area of study students study the neural basis of

memory and learning and examine factors that influence
the learning of new behaviours and the storage and
retention of information in memory. They consider the
influence of biological, psychological and social factors on
the fallibility of memory

• Pp. 25-26
DOT POINT 1
• NEURAL PLASTICITY AND CHANGES TO
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN NEURONS (INCLUDING
L O N G - T E R M P O T E N T I AT I O N A N D L O N G - T E R M
D E P R E S S I O N ) A S T H E F U N D A M E N TA L
M E C H A N I S M S O F M E M O R Y F O R M AT I O N T H AT
LEADS TO LEARNING
 NEURAL PLASTICITY
• The brain is capable of learning because of its neural plasticity. Neural
plasticity refers to the way the brain changes in response to stimulation
from the environment.

• Changes to the brain occur most rapidly in the foetal stage and in babies,
children and adolescents. This process, developmental plasticity,
diminishes with age.

• However, the association areas of the cerebral cortex remain plasticity

throughout our lives. We are able to continue to develop new synapses as
a result of stimulating experiences and changes to our environment. This
process is known as adaptive plasticity.
 NEURAL BASIS OF LEARNING:
PLASTICITY: EFFECTS OF EXPERIENCE ON
THE BRAIN
• Babies born with all 100 billion nerve cells
• Each cell at birth synapses with around 2500
other neurons
• By late childhood the number of connections
increases to around 15,000 per neuron
• By adulthood this number decreases to
around 8,000 as unused connections are
destroyed

• Children’s brains show greater plasticity than

adults:
– Children learn languages faster than
adults;
– Children recover from brain damage
more quickly i.e. the girl with half a brain.
NEURAL BASIS OF LEARNING:
ADAPTIVE PLASTICITY: BRAIN’S
RESPONSE TO DAMAGE
• Rerouting: neurons near damaged area seek new active connections with
healthy neurons.
– Like a detour off the highway onto a different road.
• Sprouting: new dendrites grow.
– More dendrites = more opportunities for connection.

• May occur near damaged area or other parts of brain.

• Allows shifting of function from damaged area to healthy area
(remapping).
• ‘Relearning’ tasks like walking, eating etc. helps these new connections
form:
– Importance of rehabilitation.
 LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
• Long-term potentiation refers to the increased tendency of a group of
neurons to fire together after they have been stimulated at a particular
frequency.

“Neurons that fire together, wire together”

• The synapse has been strengthened due to the previous firing of them all
in response to that frequency. Long-term potentiation is associated with:
- increased release of neurotransmitters
- increased receptor sensitivity
- changes to the structure of the relevant synapses
 LONG-TERM POTENTIATION
• The diagram below shows how the signal strength increases as a synapse
is used repeatedly.
 LONG-TERM DEPRESSION
• Just as long-term potentiation has strengthen a synapse, a similar process
can weaken a synapse. This can happen if the frequency of electrical
stimulation is reduced.

• Long-term depression is produced by stimulating a pre-synaptic neuron

at a low frequency. It is suggested that long-term depression plays an
important role in clearing the brain of old memories

• Basically, a postsynaptic neuron becomes less responsive to the

neurotransmitter released by a presynaptic neuron and the effect is to
weaken the synaptic connection and therefore weaken or even silence
communication at the synapse (Bliss & Cooke, 2011).
LTD

• It is believed that LTD may be just as important for learning and

memory as LTP. The weakening or elimination of unused synapses
through LTD may prune unimportant or unwanted connections,
leaving only the important connections that have been strengthened
through repeated use by LTP. The process occurs as if the rule ‘use it
or lose it’ is being followed. LTD may, for example, enable old
memories or unused connections and pathways for previously learned
information or skills to be cleared out.
CRITICAL THINKING –
COMPARE AND CONTRAST
• Although LTP and LTD have opposite outcomes in that they result in
persistent increased vs decreased synaptic excitability and one increases
neurotransmitter release in presynaptic neurons and the other does not, there
are a number of similarities. For instance:
• both are activity dependent i.e. more or less activity
• both involve glutamate
• both occur at glutamate synapses
• both involve changes in excitability
• both are long-lasting effects
• both are forms of long-lasting neural plasticity.
MORE CRITICAL THINKING:
REDUCTIONISM
• Although Hebb’s rule, LTP and LTD are often described with
reference to a pair of neurons, this is an oversimplification and it
should be kept in mind that a single neuron in the human brain may
have thousands of connections with other neurons, often in extremely
complex ways.

• For example, a memory of a single bit of information may be stored

within many connections, and each connection may be involved in
several different memories
DOT POINT 2
• THE ROLE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND
NEUROHORMONES IN THE NEURAL BASIS OF
MEMORY AND LEARNING (INCLUDING THE ROLE
O F G L U TA M AT E I N S Y N A P T I C P L A S T I C I T Y A N D
THE ROLE OF ADRENALINE IN THE
C O N S O L I D AT I O N O F E M O T I O N A L LY A R O U S I N G
EXPERIENCES).
 GLUTAMATE AND SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY

• Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain involved in

learning. A learned behaviour causes release of glutamate from the
presynaptic neuron. This causes a number of changes in the synapse.
• These changes include the growth of dendritic spines (outgrowths from
the dendrites in the synaptic gap).

• This makes the postsynaptic neuron more sensitive to future firing and
increases the efficiency of the neural pathway.
 ADRENALIN AND EMOTIONAL AROUSAL

• A neurohormone refers to any hormone produced by the nervous system

that acts as a chemical messenger. Examples include: adrenalin, CRH,
ACTH. Neurohormones differ from neurotransmitters in that they are
secreted into the bloodstream rather than passing directly from presynaptic
neuron to postsynaptic neuron.

• Low amounts of adrenalin, secreted within 30 seconds of learning, have a

role in the consolidation of memory. Emotions that produce adrenalin
therefore affect the strength of a newly forming memory. They do this by
activating the amygdala.
…

• Memories formed under circumstances of emotional arousal often aid

our survival. Memories of aggressive wild animals help us to be
cautious the next time the animal is encountered.
• However, too much adrenalin can be counterproductive to the
consolidation of memory.
HOW ADRENALINE WORKS
IN TERMS OF MEMORY
• Significant stress-inducing events are often unpleasant experiences
that are emotionally arousing. They typically leave memories that are
lasting, vivid and highly detailed from a personal perspective.

• For example, being a victim of a crime or a natural disaster will be

remembered much better than the experiences of a routine day. 
…

• When released during heightened emotional arousal, adrenaline

induces the release of noradrenaline (also called norepinephrine) in
the amygdala, which is located deep within the brain and has a crucial
role in processing emotions.
• It is believed that the presence of noradrenaline during consolidation
may then activate the amygdala to signal to the nearby hippocampus
that details of the relevant experience are significant and its long-term
storage should be strengthened
DOT POINT 3
• CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AS A THREE-PHASE
PROCESS (BEFORE CONDITIONING, DURING
CONDITIONING AND AFTER CONDITIONING)
T H AT R E S U LT S I N T H E I N V O L U N TA R Y
A S S O C I AT I O N B E T W E E N A N E U T R A L S T I M U L U S
AND UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS TO PRODUCE A
CONDITIONED RESPONSE, INCLUDING STIMULUS
G E N E R A L I S AT I O N , S T I M U L U S D I S C R I M I N AT I O N ,
E X T I N C T I O N A N D S P O N TA N E O U S R E C O V E R Y
WHAT IS BEHAVIORISM?

CLASS BRAINSTORM
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning that occurs through the
repeated association of two different stimuli. Learning is said to have
occurred when a stimulus produces a response when it did not previously
do so.

• A few key definitions:

- Stimulus – any event/object that elicits a response from an organism
- Response – a reaction made by an organism to a stimulus
- Unconditioned – unlearned
- Conditioned - learned
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Classical conditioning is described as a 3 phase process that involves
developing an association between two stimuli, resulting in a learned
response.

• The case of Pavlov’s Dog is the most well-known example of classical

conditioning.
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING

• Classical conditioning was

first described by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov.
Pavlov was interested in the
digestive system of dogs.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Pavlov knew that dogs salivated when given food. However, during his
experiments, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would start to salivate before
they were given food. They would drool when they saw the lab assistants
who fed them. Pavlov realised that the dogs had made an association
between the two stimuli (food and lab assistants).

• Pavlov began to experiment and discovered that a dog could be

conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell. The process used to do this
is described using the 3 phase model on the next slide.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

• Can you make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell?

• http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/pavlov/pavlov.ht
ml
 • Unconditioned response (UCR) – the response that occurs
automatically as a result of the UCS. This is a reflexive response.

• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – any stimulus which elicits an

UCR.

•
ELEMENTS OF
Neutral stimulus (NS) – the stimulus to be associated with the
UCS so that it to produces the response. This stimulus does not

CLASSICAL
initially elicit a response.

CONDITIONING • Conditioned stimulus (CS) – the stimulus which is ‘neutral’ at the

start of classical conditioning and does not normally produce the
UCR, but eventually becomes associated with the UCS.

• Conditioned response (CR) – the learned or acquired response to

the conditioned stimulus; occurs after CS has been associated with
the UCS;
KEY PROCESSES OF
CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• Extinction: Gradual decrease in
strength/rate of CR when CS is
presented alone (UCS removed).
– E.g. Over time, the bell alone
produces less saliva.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance
of an extinguished CR when CS is
presented alone, after a CS-free rest
period.
– E.g. After 24 hours without
ringing the bell (rest period), the
bell is rung and saliva is
produced.
KEY PROCESSES OF
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Stimulus Generalisation:
any stimulus that is similar to
the CS will produce the CR.
• E.g. Pavlov noticed that
after conditioning had been
successfully completed, the
dogs would salivate
whenever they heard
something similar to the bell
sound.
Stimulus Discrimination:
only the specific CS is able to
trigger the CR (opposite to
generalisation).
• E.g. If Pavlov’s dogs had
only salivated when they
heard the original bell (not
any other bell sound) that
would be an example of
stimulus discrimination.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
REAL-WORLD EXAMPLES
• NS – Song (no relevant response)
• UCS – Good times with friends
• UCR – Positive mood due to good times
with friends
• CS – Song
+ UCS – Good times with friends
• UCR – Positive mood due to good times
with friends
• CS - Song
• CR – Positive mood due to song
• We learn to associate the song with the
good times we had
• NS – Lead (no relevant response)
• UCS – Walking
• UCR – Excitement due to walking
• CS – Lead
+ UCS – Walking
• UCR – Excitement due to walking
• CS – Lead
• CR – Excitement due to lead
• The dog has learned to associate the dog
lead with being taken for a walk
 LITTLE
ALBERT
DOT POINT 6: THE ‘LITTLE ALBERT’
E X P E R I M E N T A S I L L U S T R AT I N G H O W
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CAN BE USED TO
CONDITION AN EMOTIONAL RESPONSE,
I N C L U D I N G E T H I C A L I M P L I C AT I O N S O F T H E
E X P E R I M E N T.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:

‘LITTLE ALBERT’ EXPERIMENT

• Famous experiment run by John B Watson.
• Albert placed on a mattress then a white laboratory rat was placed near
him and he was allowed to play with it. At this point, he showed no fear
of the rat.
• In later trials, whenever Albert touched the rat a loud sound was made
by striking a suspended steel bar with a hammer. Not surprisingly, this
noise made Albert cry and show fear.
• After several pairings of the two stimuli (rat and noise), Albert was
presented with only the rat. He became very distressed, cried, turned
away from the rat and tried to move away.
• Albert had associated the white rat with the scary loud noise –he had
linked the rat with the feeling of fear.
CLASSICAL CONDITIONIN G:

‘LITTLE ALBERT’ EXPERIMENT

• Neutral Stimulus (before conditioning):
White rat.

• UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Loud noise.

• UCR (Unconditioned Response): Fear,

crying in response to loud noise.

• UCS + NS (pairing): Leads to fear and crying

• CS (Conditioned Stimulus): White rat.

• CR (Conditioned Response): Fear, crying in
response to white rat.

• Stimulus Generalisation: Albert also became

fearful of rabbits, furry dogs, fur coats and
Santa beard.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
ETHICS
• Beneficence: The possible benefits of the research should be maximised to
outweigh the possible risks to the participant (which should be minimised). DO
NO HARM
– Little Albert: the experimenters did not balance the possible advantages of
the research against the obvious discomfort and risk of harm to Albert.

• Informed consent- mother was not fully informed of conditions of the

experiment, so was not upheld.
• Other Ethical Issues in Classical Conditioning: Participant’s rights, voluntary
participation, confidentiality.
DOT POINT 4
• OPERANT CONDITIONING AS A THREE-PHASE
M O D E L ( A N T E C E D E N T , B E H AV I O U R ,
C O N S E Q U E N C E ) I N V O LV I N G R E I N F O R C E R S
( P O S I T I V E A N D N E G AT I V E ) A N D P U N I S H M E N T
( I N C L U D I N G R E S P O N S E C O S T ) T H AT C A N B E U S E D
T O C H A N G E V O L U N T A R Y B E H AV I O U R S ,
I N C L U D I N G S T I M U L U S G E N E R A L I S AT I O N ,
S T I M U L U S D I S C R I M I N AT I O N A N D S P O N TA N E O U S
RECOVERY (EXCLUDING SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT)
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Burrhus Frederic (BF) Skinner first started experimenting with rats and pigeons in the 1930s.

• He trained the animals to perform a variety of voluntary behaviours by rewarding them with food
every time they performed the behaviour.

• This type of learning is referred to as operant conditioning because people and animals learn to
operate on their environment.

• An operant is any response that acts on the environment to produce a desired consequence. An
operant is a voluntary behaviour.
 THREE-PHASE MODEL OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• Skinner noticed that the conditions needed to be right before a voluntary
behaviour is performed. He referred to this as the three-phase model or A-B-C of
operant conditioning.

Antecedent – the stimulus that makes the conditions right and comes before the
Behaviour – the voluntary response to the antecedent
Consequences – the event that occurs after the behaviour and determines whether
the behaviour is likely to continue

• The antecedent is sometimes referred to as the discriminative stimulus.

 THREE-PHASE MODEL OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• Identify the ABC in the following scenario: You have an upcoming Psychology
SAC. You study very hard for the SAC and are thrilled when you get an A.

• The antecedent is the upcoming SAC.

• This leads to the behaviour of working very hard.
• The consequence is receiving an A, which results in higher likelihood of working
hard again in the future

• Are you going to be more or less likely to work hard when you have upcoming
SACs?
 ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
• A reinforcer is defined as any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response.
• A punisher is defined as any stimulus that weakens or decreases the likelihood of a response.

• Positive reinforcement occurs when a pleasant stimulus is provided e.g. money, praise,
chocolate.
• Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed e.g. taking ibuprofen
removes a headache.
• Punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is provided e.g. hitting a dog that has
misbehaved.
• Response cost occurs when a pleasant stimulus is removed e.g. having your mobile phone taken
by a teacher when you use it during class.
EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

• Extinction occurs when

the learned response
disappears over time after
consequences has
stopped.

• Spontaneous recovery is
the reappearance of an
extinguished response
after a rest period. This
demonstrated that an
extinguished response has
not been unlearned or
forgotten.
 GENERALISATION AND DISCRIMINATION
• In operant conditioning, stimulus generalisation and stimulus discrimination refer
to the antecedent.

• Stimulus generalisation occurs when a behaviour is elicited by a stimulus that is

similar to the antecedent.

• e.g. A dog is taught the word ‘sit’ to get it to sit down. If the dog also sits when it
hears ‘fit’, ‘hit’, ‘bit’ etc, then it is demonstrating stimulus generalisation.
• If the dog only sits when it hears ‘sit’, it is demonstrating stimulus discrimination.
COMPARISON BETWEEN CLASSICAL
AND OPERANT CONDITIONING

Classical Operant

Role of learner
(passive or active)
Passive- don’t have to do Active- have to carry out the
anything for CS/UCS to be response for reinforcer to be used.
presented and response to Learner has control as won’t be
occur reinforced if behaviour not done

Timing of stimulus (The

sequence Stimulus first then the response (food Discriminitve stimulus first then response then
presented salivation due to food)- consequence (command of sit dog sits 
that the learning and ideal is 0.5 secs apart dog receives a schmacko)
behaviour occur in and the
timing of the learning)
Nature of the response Reflexive Voluntary
(reflexive or voluntary)
 DOT POINT 5
O B S E R VAT I O N A L L E A R N I N G A S A M E T H O D O F S O C I A L
LEA R N IN G , PA RTIC U LA R LY IN C H I LD R EN , IN VO LV I N G
ATTE NTIO N, RETENTIO N, REPRO DUCTIO N,
M O T I VAT I O N A N D R E I N F O R C E M E N T
 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• Social learning is the process by which social influences alter people’s thoughts, feelings and behaviours.
Observational learning is defined as the means of acquiring this social learning. Children develop their attitudes
by observing those expressed by other people who are important to them.

• The four principles of observational learning are:

1. Learning occurs by observing the behaviour of others and the consequences of those behaviours.
2. Learning can occur without there being an immediate change in behaviour – it can remain latent.
3. Cognition plays a role in observational learning. Expectation of future reward or punishment can influence
behaviour.
4. Observational learning links the theories of operant conditioning and cognitive theories of learning.
BANDURA’S BOBO
DOLL EXPERIMENTS

• https://www.youtube.com/watc
h?v=NjTxQy_U3ac
– original footage

• Albert Bandura conducted a

series of experiments in the
1960s to test his social learning
theory.
• They involved many
modifications and different
types of experiments used to
test the social learning model –
but his ‘classic study’ was
conducted in 1965.
BANDURA’S • The 1965 Bobo doll experiment demonstrated
BOBO DOLL the influence of observational learning and the
EXPERIMENTS social learning theory on aggression in children.

• There were 3 groups of children and each group

were shown one of 3 films. Each film showed
an adult model punching, kicking and verbally
abusing a Bobo clown doll.
 BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENTS
• Following each film, each child was placed individually in a room with a one-way mirror
and observed. Some children were offered rewards for imitating the aggressive behaviour
and others were not.

• Results showed that children who watched the aggressive model either being reinforced or
experiencing NO CONSEQUENCES, imitated the aggressive behaviour more than the
children who watched the aggressive model being punished

• However, when a reward was offered, even the children who saw the aggressive model
punished, tended to imitate the model’s behaviour.
 FINDINGS FROM BANDURA’S
EXPERIMENTS

• Learning can occur through observation of models

• Vicarious learning can occur when models are seen to be reinforced or
punished.
• Learning can remain latent, expressed only when an appropriate reward is
offered
• Learning to control behaviours such as aggression can be learned through
observing appropriate models.
• Children who see adults behaving aggressively might believe that this
behaviour is normal and therefore be more likely to engage in it.
THE PROCESS OF
OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
• In observational learning, the learner
plays an active role. There are five key
processes that are necessary for
observational learning:

1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Reproduction
4. Motivation
5. Reinforcement
 ATTENTION
Attention: to learn through observation we must closely watch the model’s
behaviour & consequences.

Attention may be We pay closer attention to

influenced by:
 perceptual capabilities of
observer
 motivation & interest level
 situation being observed
 distracters that are present
 characteristics of model
 importance of behaviour
 distinctiveness of behaviour
 effect it may have on us.
(and are more likely to
imitate) models who have:
 high status, perceived
positively
 perceived similar features and
traits
 familiar qualities
 visible behaviour (stands out)
 behaviour able to be imitated
successfully
RETENTION AND REPRODUCTION
• Retention: once we observe the model we must be able to remember the model’s behaviour.
– Need to store memory
– The more meaningful we make that mental representation, the more accurately we will be able to replicate the behaviour when necessary.
– MENTAL/COGNITIVE REPRESENTATION – this process depends on the observer’s ability to encode or structure the information in an
easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model’s actions

• Reproduction: imitating what we observed.

– Must have the ability to put into practice what we observed.
– OBSERVERS MUST BE PHYSICALLY AND INTELLECTUALLY CAPABLE OF REPRODUCING THE ACT
– IN MANY CASES THE OBSERVER POSSESSES THE NECESSARY RESPONSES, BUT SOMETIMES, REPRODUCING THE
MODEL'S ACTIONS MAY INVOLVE SKILLS THE OBSERVER HAS NOT YET ACQUIRED
– IT IS ONE THING TO CAREFULLY WATCH A CIRCUS JUGGLER, BUT IT IS QUITE ANOTHER TO GO HOME AND REPEAT
THOSE ACTS
– Must have the potential to be competent enough to develop the necessary skills to imitate the behaviour.
MOTIVATION AND REINFORCEMENT
Motivation:
– The observer must be motivated (especially by the use of reinforcement) to perform the behaviour.
– The learners will perform the act only if they have some motivation or reason to do so
– The presence of reinforcement or punishment, either to the model or directly to the observer, becomes most important in this process

Reinforcement:
– If modelled behaviour is reinforced it results in increased motivation and vice versa.
– When a behaviour has been performed and a positive outcome has been achieved – the behaviour will likely be performed again

 External reinforcement: learning by receiving positive or negative reinforcement.

 Vicarious reinforcement: observing the modelled behaviour being reinforced for other people.
 Self-reinforcement: reinforced by meeting certain standards of performance we set for ourselves (can be positive or negative).
APPLICATIONS OF
OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
• Observational learning means that role models are
powerful influences on the behaviour of others,
especially on children.

• These influences can be negative as well as

positive. For example, parents who physically
punish their children may be unintentionally
modelling aggressive behaviour that the children
will later imitate.

• Models can also influence positive behaviour in

children e.g. parents reading to their children,
recycling, and demonstrating appropriate social
behaviour.
EXAM STYLE QUESTION

Henni is watching Ms Rigoni put on her make up for the day. Use the
language of observational learning, explain how Henni learns to have
fabulous make up. (5 marks)
IN THIS AREA OF
UNIT 3 PSYCHOLOGY
STUDY STUDENTS
STUDY THE NEURAL 2018
BASIS OF MEMORY
AND LEARNING AND
E X A M I N E FA C T O R S
HOW DOES
TH AT I NFLUE NCE
THE LEARNING OF EXPERIENCE AFFECT
N E W B E H AV I O U R S
AND THE STORAGE
AND RETENTION OF
BEHAVIOUR AND
I N F O R M AT I O N I N
M E M O RY. T H E Y
M E N TA L P R O C E S S E S ?
CONSIDER THE
INFLUENCE OF
BIOLOGICAL,
AOS2: HOW DO
PSYCHOLOGICAL
AND SOCIAL
PEOPLE LEARN AND
FA C T O R S O N T H E
FA L L I B I L I T Y O F
M E M O RY.
REMEMBER?
DOT POINT 7
• T H E M U LT I - S T O R E M O D E L O F M E M O R Y
( AT K I N S O N - S H I F F R I N ) W I T H R E F E R E N C E T O
T H E F U N C T I O N , C A PA C I T Y, A N D D U R AT I O N O F
S E N S O R Y, S H O R T- T E R M A N D L O N G - T E R M
M E M O R Y.
THE PROCESSES
OF MEMORY

• Memory is defined as ‘’an

active information-processing
system that receives, organises,
stores and recovers
information”

• A useful analogy for the

memory process is to liken it to
the way we use computers.
Memory depends on three
sequential processes: encoding,
storage, and retrieval.
 THE PROCESSES OF MEMORY
• Encoding refers to the process of putting information into a form that will
allow it to be stored. When we press a key on a keyboard, that keystroke is
converted into an electrically coded message. When information enters our
brain, that information must first be changed into a neural (electrochemical)
code.
• Storage refers to the process of keeping information in our brain for a period
of time. This is likened to saving it on the hard drive of a computer.
• Retrieval is the process of getting information back from memory. This is like
opening a file on a computer and viewing its contents.
 ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN’S MULTI-STORE MODEL OF
MEMORY

• Atkinson and Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory describes three stores of memory that are
separate but function simultaneously to create our ability to encode, store, and retrieve
information.
• Using the computer analogy as a model for memory:
– Sensory Memory is a brief memory store, like a computer’s buffer. It is the entry point for
all new information from the external environment. This information can be transferred to
short-term memory if attention is paid to it
– Short-Term Memory (STM) is a limited store of actively conscious memory, like a
computer’s random access memory (RAM). Information in STM can be transferred to long-
term memory.
– Long-Term Memory (LTM) is likened to a computer’s hard drive. It holds information
relatively permanently in a highly organised way (with an essentially unlimited capacity).
ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN’S
MULTI-STORE MODEL OF
MEMORY

• The model describes memory as

a flow of information with
inputs, processes and outputs.
Sensory information from our
surroundings enters through our
sensory memory, also referred to
as our sensory register. The
short-term memory stores and
processes this information. If the
information is rehearsed, it can
be stored more permanently in
our long-term memory.
 SENSORY MEMORY
• Sensory memory is the entry point for information into memory. We have a sensory store for each
of our five senses.
• We are not consciously aware of the majority of information entering sensory memory. We only
become aware when attention is directed to toward it in the process of transferring it to STM.
• Any stimulus that is registered by our sense organs is available to be selected for attention and for
processing in STM.
• If sensory information is not attended to it is lost quickly (within seconds at most) and completely.
• Information that is attended to is transferred to STM.

• Sensory information is stored in sub-systems called sensory registers (e.g. iconic memory & echoic
memory).
 SENSORY MEMORY
• Sensory memory prevents us from being overwhelmed by the huge amounts
of incoming sensory information. It stores sensory information in its raw form
for very short periods of time.

• Sensory memory acts like a filter, ignoring the information that is irrelevant
and paying attention to what is important.

• It would be frustrating, confusing, dangerous and inefficient to process

EVERYTHING that reached sensory memory or attend to all the sensory
information that our receptors detect.
SENSORY
MEMORY

• Two examples of sensory

memory refer to visual and
auditory registers. They
are referred to as iconic
memory and echoic
memory.

• The brief duration of

sensory memory is
important. It allows us to
perceive our word as
smooth and ongoing, and
to hear sounds just long
enough to understand
whole sentences
 ICONIC MEMORY
• Iconic memory refers to visual sensory memory. Icon comes from the
Greek word for image.

• Iconic memory last for about 0.3 seconds. This explains why we
perceive a series of still shots on a movie screen as a moving picture.
Each image remains in our iconic memory as it is being replaced by
the next image. This overlap of images gives us the illusion of
movement.
 SPERLING’S STUDY OF ICONIC MEMORY

• Sperling was able to demonstrate the duration of iconic memory using a

device known as a tachistoscope. A tachistoscope flashes visual stimuli onto a
screen for a brief period of time. Sperling used his tachistoscope to flash a
matrix of letters like the one below to participants.

• The image was only displayed for 1/20 of a second. This was followed by a
high, medium or low tone that signalled which row of letters the participant
had to report.
• Sperling found that the longer the tone was delayed, the poorer the recall.
50% of letters were recalled after a 0.3 second delay and 33% after a 1 second
delay.
 ICONIC MEMORY

Iconic memory is visual sensory memory

DURATION - 1/3 of a second (0.33)

CAPACITY - is all the objects in your visual field

FORM - is the raw visual images

The duration is very brief so that images do not

overlap for too long and blur one’s perception.
 ECHOIC MEMORY

Echoic memory is auditory sensory memory.

DURATION - 3- 4 seconds

CAPACITY - is all the sounds within our range

of hearing or provided by the sensory
receptor, the ear.

FORM - raw sounds of speech, objects, nature

etc.
 ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S MULTI-STORE MEMORY
MODEL:
SHORT TERM MEMORY

• Type of memory involving limited capacity and temporary storage of information

• Temporarily holds all information you are consciously thinking about at any one
moment.

• Receives information from sensory memory and/or LTM.

• It can hold information that is not rehearsed for ~ 18-20 seconds (up to 30 sec)
ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S MULTI-STORE
MEMORY MODEL:
SHORT TERM MEMORY: CAPACITY

• Limited amount of information can be held at any one time:

– 7 + 2 bits of information (regardless of type of info,
only 5-9 pieces held).
• When STM is full, new items can only be added by pushing
old ones out.
• Space in STM also filled when information is temporarily
brought back form LTM.
• Information in STM is lost through decay (not being used) and
displacement (being pushed out).
• The capacity of STM can be increased by CHUNKING – the
process of grouping separate pieces (units/bits) of
information into larger bits/clusters (chunks) for storage
ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN’S MULTI-STORE MEMORY MODEL:

SHORT TERM MEMORY:

CHUNKING
• Grouping separate bits of information into a larger
single unit or ‘chunk’ of information.
– Increases the amount of information held in STM.
– Improves capacity, however for permanent storage the
information MUST STILL be transferred to LTM.

– Phone number length and layout:

• 5-5-7-8-1-9-3 versus 5578 8193
– Applying meaning/significance to groups:
• C I A N S W F B I versus CIA NSW FBI
 LONG-TERM MEMORY
• LTM = the relatively permanent memory system that holds vast amounts of information for a
long period of time
• Thought to be unlimited in duration and capacity

• There are different types of LTM which are identified as two systems:
– Procedural memory: knowledge of skills, habits or actions (‘how to’)
– Declarative memory: Memories of personal experiences and facts

• Information in LTM can be explicit (information that you have to consciously work to
remember) or implicit (information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly)
 LONG TERM MEMORY:
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
• Memory of actions and skills that have been learned previously
• Knowing how to do something
– Actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses

 Also called implicit memories because it’s often hard to recall when/how we learned to
perform them.
 Difficult to put into words or explain how you knew the information. For example:
• Riding a bike. You just ‘know’ how to do it, even if it’s been a long time since you
rode one. You would find it difficult to explain every behaviour or movement
required.
 LONG TERM MEMORY:
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
• Memory of specific facts, events or general knowledge that can be brought
consciously to mind.
• Information associated to learning for school, reading, mathematics and higher
order thinking.
• Also called explicit memories; conscious retrieval of memory/intentional
remembering (‘knowing that’)

• Includes two types of memory:

– Episodic
– Semantic
 LONG TERM MEMORY:
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
– Episodic Memory: holds info about specific events or personal experiences.
– Include details of time, place and the psychological/ physiological state the
person was in when the event occurred.
– Like a mental diary, recording episodes we experience.
– Can be retrospective (past events) or prospective (things to do in the future).
– Semantic Memory: stores info we have about the world.
– Includes our specialised knowledge in areas of expertise, academic knowledge,
rules, everyday general knowledge and the meaning of words.
– Facts not dependent on place or time.

– Both episodic and semantic memory are linked and often hard to separate.
 Long-term
memory (LTM)

Explicit memory Implicit memory

Declarative memory: Procedural memory:

contains factual contains knowledge of
information; knowing how to perform certain
‘that’ skills; knowing ‘how’

e.g. how to tie shoe laces, how to ride a bike, etc.

Semantic memory: Episodic memory:

contains knowledge contains personal
and facts about the experiences;
world autobiographical
events

‘ I know…’ – knowledge of facts about the ‘I remember…’ – memory for past experiences
world, including general knowledge and word Or episodes, e.g. your first day at school.
meanings, e.g. the chemical symbol for iron is
Fe. The Prime Minister of England is….. Etc.
Memory Type Duration Capacity Encoding

Sensory memory: Based on the

ICONIC ~ 0.3 sec physical
Very high properties of
ECHOIC ~ 3 – 4 sec the stimulus

STM (Short-term 18 – 30 sec Limited to Usually verbal

memory) if not 7±2 items
rehearsed

LTM (Long-term May be May be Elaborative,

memory) unlimited unlimited according to
meaning
 DOT POINT 8
I N T E R A C T I O N S B E T W E E N S P E C I F I C R E G I O N S O F T H E
B R A I N ( C E R E B R A L C O R T E X , H I P P O C A M P U S , A M Y G D A L A
A N D C E R E B E L L U M ) I N T H E S T O R A G E O F L O N G - T E R M
M E M O R I E S , I N C L U D I N G I M P L I C I T A N D E X P L I C I T
M E M O R I E S .
BRAIN STRUCTURES
INVOLVED IN LONG-
TERM MEMORY

• There are many regions of

the brain involved in the
encoding and storage of
LTM. A summary is shown
in the table below.
BRAIN STRUCTURES INVOLVED IN LONG-TERM MEMORY
• The main structures involved in LTM can be seen in the diagram
below.
 THE ROLE OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX IN
LTM
• Each of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex plays a role in LTM.

• FRONTAL LOBE – Plays a role in the storage, processing and encoding of procedural memories. Plays a role in
the memory of language and motor skills.

• OCCIPITAL LOBES – Play a role in the memory of pictures

• PARIETAL LOBES – Play a role in spatial memory

• TEMPORAL LOBES – Play a role in the memory of sound, faces, and the names of colours. In addition, the
temporal lobes contain the hippocampus and amygdala, two structures vital to the encoding of declarative
memories.
THE ROLE OF THE
HIPPOCAMPUS IN
LTM
• The hippocampus is a structure found in each of
the medial temporal lobes (see diagram below). It
plays an important role in consolidating
declarative memories before transferring them for
more permanent storage in relevant parts of the
cerebral cortex. Note: the hippocampus does not
store the memory. Its role is consolidation of
the LTM!!
• The hippocampus is unlike other brain structures
in that its cells are able to reproduce. A study by
McGuire et al. (1997) found that
London taxi drivers have larger
hippocampi than people working in
other professions.
THE ROLE OF THE
AMYGDALA IN LTM

• Like the hippocampus, the amygdala is also found in

the medial temporal lobe. The amygdala is located at
the end of the hippocampus.

• The amygdala is essential for the formation of implicit

memories, including those formed during classical
conditioning and emotional memory. (Remember when
stressed/scared, SNS activates release of adrenaline to
stimulate the amygdale). The amygdala also regulates
emotions such as fear, pleasure, and aggression

• The amygdala plays a special role in memory for

emotions shown on faces. In activating the
hippocampus, the amygdala plays a part in the
consolidating of declarative memory with emotional
content e.g. winning a sports competition. Note: the
amygdala does not store the memory. Its role is
consolidation of the LTM!!
Procedural memories are
processed, encoded and stored by
the cerebellum, as well as the basal
ganglia and the frontal lobes of the
cerebral cortex.

The cerebellum also plays a role in THE ROLE OF

classical conditioning. A study
found that rabbits with damaged
cerebella were not able to be
THE
classically conditioned to blink
when given a puff of air to the CEREBELLUM
IN LTM
face.

The cerebellum also plays a role in

memory of how to perform a motor
skill – it works with the motor
cortex of the frontal lobes.
 DOT POINT 9
M E T H O D S T O R E T R I E V E I N F O R M AT I O N F R O M M E M O R Y O R
D E M O N S T R AT E T H E E X I S T E N C E O F I N F O R M AT I O N I N
M E M O R Y, I N C L U D I N G R E C A L L , R E C O G N I T I O N ,
R E L E A R N I N G , A N D R E C O N S T R U C T I O N .
METHODS OF
MEMORY
RETRIEVAL

• Memory research
acknowledges the
following four methods of
memory retrieval:

- Recall
- Recognition
- Relearning
- Reconstruction
 RECALL
• Recall involves a person retrieving stored information using a minimal
amount of cues. There are three main types of recall:

– Free recall involves retrieving as much information as possible in

any order
– Serial recall involves retrieving information in the order in which
it was presented
– Cued recall involves retrieving information using specific prompts
(cues) to aid the retrieval process.
Recognition refers to identifying
the correct information amongst a
list of incorrect alternatives.

E.g. picking the correct answer to a

multiple choice question. RECOGNITION

Recognition is sometimes
incorrectly confused with cued
recall. For recognition, the
information to be retrieved is
actually presented. For cued recall,
clues/hints/prompts are given to
aid retrieval.
 RELEARNING
• Relearning refers to learning again something that has previously been
stored in LTM. Learning something for a second time is easier than learning
it for the first time, and therefore takes less time.
• If the time/number of trials taken to learn the material originally can be
measured and compared with the time/number of trials taken to relearn
the same material, then a savings score can be calculated using the
following equation:

A savings score is always expressed as a percentage

FOR EXAMPLE…

You are a participant in an experiment

it takes you 10 trials to learn a string of 12 nonsense words
6 months later you are tested again
it takes you 5 trials to learn the same string of 12 nonsense words

Your savings score

= 50%
RELATIVE SENSITIVITY
OF MEASURES OF
RETENTION

• Sensitivity refers how well a

measure of retention can
determine if information is
stored in LTM. Free recall is
the least sensitive measure
of retention. A person might
know the information
required, but may unable to
retrieve it due to the lack of
cues. Relearning is said to be
the most sensitive measure
of retention.
 RECONSTRUCTION
• Our memories are reconstructed each time we remember them

• Reconstruction refers to the way we can change a memory, based on the way
we recall it. E.g. if a memory is not recalled often, we might add or remove
details the next time we recall it. Memories can be distorted in our minds
based on the way we reconstruct them.
• We might remember a fight with a friend being more serious than it was, or
remember something being said that wasn’t actually said.
• Reconstruction plays an important role in the consolidation of memory.
DOT POINT 10
T H E E F F E C T S O F B R A I N T R A U M
A S S O C I AT E D W I T H M E M O R Y A
D I S E A S E S , I N C L U D I N G B R A I N
A M N E S I A A N D A L Z H E I
A O N A R E A S O F T H E B R A I N
N D N E U R O D E G E N E R AT I V E
S U R G E R Y, A N T E R O G R A D E
M E R ’ S D I S E A S E .
 BRAIN TRAUMA AND
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASE
• Studies of memory usually fall into two groups:

1) Studies of patients with specific memory loss due to brain trauma. These
patients are useful as damage to specific regions of the brain can provide a
deficit of a specific type of memory.

2) Studies of patients with neurodegenerative diseases. This group includes

patients with diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease. The memory loss in
these patients is often not specific, and may often be accompanied by other
cognitive deficits.
MEMORY LOSS
(AMNESIA) DUE TO
BRAIN TRAUMA
• Brain trauma (damage to the brain) can be
caused by traumatic head injury, disease, seizure,
malnutrition, stroke, or chemical damage due to
drugs.

• The term amnesia refers to loss of memory that

is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting. Memory
loss may be partial or complete, temporary or
permanent. Total amnesia (complete loss of
memory) is rare. Organic amnesia (memory loss
caused by brain damage) is usually partial and
selective.
BRAIN
SURGERY
• Although it can be a necessary
and life-saving event, brain
surgery can also cause problems
for patients when it interferes
with the structure or function of
the brain.
• Henry Molaison suffered severe
temporal lobe epilepsy; in 1957
(he was 27 years old) he had
surgery to treat it.
 THE CASE STUDY OF H.M.
• Doctors removed both of H.M’s medial temporal lobes:
– Inner surface area near middle (medial) of temporal lobe, consisting of hippocampus,
amygdala and other cortical tissue.
• H.M. was left with permanent anterograde amnesia:
– He remembered events before his surgery, but could not form new long-term episodic
or semantic memories.
– Short-term memory remained normal – as long as he actively rehearsed something
(maintenance rehearsal) he could retain it, but as soon as he became distracted the
memory information was lost.
– H.M was unable to store new explicit memories
– However, he was able to learn new procedural skills (implicit memory)
 ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
• Anterograde amnesia is the inability to encode and store new memories. It
involves loss of memory for information or events after brain trauma occurs.
Typically, a person with anterograde amnesia can retrieve memories they had
prior to brain damage occurring.
• Anterograde amnesia can be explained by the information processing model
of memory. Info enters sensory memory, is attended to & transferred to STM.
The information can be manipulated in STM & rehearsed indefinitely, but the
brain structures involved in transferring it from STM to LTM are damaged,
therefore no new permanent memories can be formed.
• Anterograde amnesia is commonly associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
 MEMORY LOSS DUE TO
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASE
• Dementia is an umbrella term referring to disorders that affect higher mental
functions. Dementia may be caused by brain damage, disease, reduced blood
supply to the brain, and toxins such as alcohol.
• The most common symptom of dementia is serious loss of mental capacity,
including:
– Memory loss
– Decline in intellectual ability
– Poor judgement
– Poor social skills
– Abnormal emotional reactions
 ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
Alzheimer’s disease is a
common form of dementia. It
is a neurodegenerative
disease characterised by
gradual widespread
degeneration of brain
neurons leading to:
Memory loss;
Decline in cognitive & social skills;
Personality changes.
Alzheimer’s is currently the
4th largest cause of death in
Australia.
Approx. 100 000 Australians
suffer Alzheimer’s:
One in twenty-five people over the age
of 60;
One in eight people over the age of 65;
One in four people over the age of 80;
Alzheimer’s affects some people in
their mid-50s;
It is estimated that number of sufferers
will increase by 40% in the next decade
as our population ages
 CAUSES OF ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
• Brains of people with Alzheimer’s disease have high levels of a protein called amyloid.
– Amyloid is neurotoxic – it poisons brain cells, causing cell death;
– Amyloid is insoluble – cannot be metabolised by the brain;
– Development of amyloid plaques (deposits of protein & cell materials outside neurons)
leads to disruption in communication between neurons
– Development of neurofibrillary tangles (twisted fibres built up inside the neuron) lead to
death of neurons.
• The hippocampus and related areas of the midbrain appear to be most affected:
– Up to ¾ of neurons in these areas may be lost and the others are often damaged.
• Greatly reduced levels of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine:
– Associated with intellectual functioning, especially memory and learning.
• One of the first brain structures affected is the hippocampus. This probably
explains the early memory loss.
• Plaques and tangles in the frontal lobes cause more memory problems and
difficulty with attention and motor skills.
• Damage to the occipital lobes can cause reading and other visual problems.
DOT POINT 11
T H E FA C T O R S I N F L U E N C I N G A P E
I N A B I L I T Y T O R E M E M B E R I N F O R
C O N T E X T A N D S TAT E D E P E N D E N T
A N D E L A B O R AT I V E R E H E A R S A L A
E F F E C T
R S O N ’ S A B I L I T Y A N D
M AT I O N , I N C L U D I N G
C U E S , M A I N T E N A N C E
N D S E R I A L P O S I T I O N
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

• Complete experiment (see SPE excel spreadsheet)

• Link with RM

• Methodological evaluation using GRAVE

 FACTORS INFLUENCING MEMORY
• The encoding specificity principle states that the associations formed at the time
of encoding new memories will be the most effective retrieval cues.

• This means that if we are trying to retrieve information under conditions similar
to those under which it was learned, we will retrieve it more easily than under
different conditions.

• The two main conditions that assist retrieval are the learner’s external
environment (context) and their internal environment (state). Consequently we
refer to these conditions as context-dependent cues and state-dependent cues.
 CONTEXT-DEPENDENT CUES
• Context-dependent cues refer to the learner’s external environment.
These include the sights, sounds, smells etc that were present at the
time the information was learned. These factors can act as retrieval
cues at a later time. For this reason, eyewitnesses to a crime are
sometimes taken back to the crime scene.
CONTEXT-
DEPENDENT CUES

• Godden and Baddeley

(1975) found that divers
who learned a list of words
underwater were able to
recall the words better
when tested underwater
compared to when recall
was tested on land.
 STATE-DEPENDENT CUES
• State-dependent cues refer to the ‘internal environment’, which are factors within a person –
the physiological and psychological state they were in at the time they learned something.

• These factors include mood, anxiety level, and whether they were under the influence of
drugs. It has been found that when we are sad we are more likely to recall sad memories, and
when we are happy we are likely to remember happy memories.

• State-dependent cues might explain why some students have difficulty recalling information
in exams. In the exam they might be highly aroused or anxious. However, when the material
was learned they may have been quite relaxed.
 REHEARSAL AND MEMORY
• We use a technique known as rehearsal to help us encode material that we
want to remember. Maintenance rehearsal relates to short-term memory and
elaborative rehearsal relates to long-term memory.

• Take 30 seconds to memorise the following string of letters;

EMMZREEBR

• What strategy did you use to remember the letters?

 MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL
• Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of information over and over again
so it can be kept in STM for longer than usual;

• It can be verbal (repeating information aloud or subvocally) or

• non-verbal (using an inner eye to visualise the image)

• Maintenance rehearsal does not add meaning to information or link it to other

material already in LTM, it just holds it in STM for a longer time. When we
stop maintenance rehearsal, the information will be lost within 18-30 seconds.
 ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
• Elaborative rehearsal is the process of linking new information in a meaningful way with
information already stored in memory or with other new information to aid its storage and
retrieval from LTM

• It is a more active process than maintenance rehearsal

• Linking new information to personal experiences and previous memories enhances

encoding and increases the likelihood of transferral to long-term memory.

• Elaborative rehearsal involves quality encoding and creates more retrieval cues than
maintenance rehearsal.
EXAMPLES OF ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
• Self-referencing
• Peg word method
• Mneumonics
• Narrative chaining

• https://www.dailymotion.com/video/xcs0pi
Andi Bell Memory Champion
 THE SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
• A number of studies have identified the serial position effect as a factor in
memory recall.

• The serial position effect was demonstrated when participants were asked to
learn a list of 20 words and then asked to recall them immediately. When the
recall of the words was graphed, a pattern, known now as the serial position
curve, emerged.

• This curve demonstrated that the likelihood of remembering each word

depended on where the word was located in the list
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
 • The results show that recall is superior for items at the
beginning and end of the list, and poor for items in the
middle of the list.
• Superior recall for items at the start of the list is referred to as

THE SERIAL the primacy effect. These items are recalled because they
have been rehearsed and transferred to LTM
POSITION • Superior recall for items at the end of the list is referred to as

EFFECT the recency effect. These items are recalled because they are
still in STM.
• Poor recall for items in the middle of the list is referred to as
the asymptote. These items are not recalled well as they have
not been properly rehearsed into LTM and have been
displaced from STM by items at the end of the list.
DOT POINT 12
• THE RECONSTRUCTION OF MEMORIES AS
E V I D E N C E F O R T H E FA L L I B I L I T Y O F M E M O R Y,
WITH REFERENCE TO LOFTUS’ RESEARCH INTO
THE EFFECT OF LEADING QUESTIONS ON EYE-
WITNESS TESTIMONIES
 EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY
• Research has shown that eyewitness testimony is subject to reconstruction of memories. In
the time between witnessing an event and giving evidence, a number of things might have
happened:

- Eyewitnesses might have seen news reports about the crime

- They might have read newspaper reports about the crime
- They might have discussed the incident with friends/family
- They might have discussed the event with lawyers/police

• Each of these may have influenced the original memory, causing it to be reconstructed. The
person giving evidence may believe that what they are saying is totally accurate.
 LEADING QUESTIONS AND THE
MISINFORMATION EFFECT
• A leading question one that, because of the way it is phrased, suggests what
the answer should be.

- “Did you see the defendant leaving the scene of the crime?” is a leading
question as it suggests the defendant was there.
- “Did you see anyone leaving the scene of the crime” is not a leading question
as it doesn’t identify any individual.

• During questioning in court, or prior to court during the police investigation,

misinformation can be implanted in an eyewitness’s memory, particularly if
leading questions are used. The belief that implanted information is a genuine
memory is known as the misinformation effect.
LOFTUS’ RESEARCH
ON EYEWITNESS
TESTIMONY

• The tables below show the

results of the experiment:

• As all participants saw the same

video, the verb used clearly
influenced eyewitness estimate of
the speed at which the cars were
travelling.
LOFTUS’ • In another study, Loftus and Zanni (1975) showed
participants a film in which a car caused a five car collision.
RESEARCH They were then asked a series of questions about the
ON accident. The only difference was some questions were posed
as:
EYEWITNESS - Did you see the broken headlight? OR
TESTIMONY - Did you see a broken headlight?
• The results can be seen in the table below:

• What do these data suggest?

END OF UNIT 3