Intermolecular Forces and

Liquids and Solids

Chapter 11
A phase is a homogeneous part of the system in contact with
other parts of the system but separated from them by a well-
defined boundary.
2 Phases

Solid phase - ice

Liquid phase - water

2
Phase Changes

Least
Order

Greatest 3
Order
 Intermolecular Forces
• are in general much weaker than
intramolecular forces (aka: bonds).

intermolecular forces are generally

less than 15% as strong as ionic or
covalent bonds
 Intermolecular Forces
Intermolecular forces are attractive forces between molecules.
Intramolecular forces hold atoms together in a molecule.
Intermolecular vs Intramolecular
• 41 kJ to vaporize 1 mole of water (inter)
• 930 kJ to break all O-H bonds in 1 mole of water (intra)

Generally, intermolecular forces are much weaker than

intramolecular forces.

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What are Intermolecular Forces?
• Ion-dipole (strongest)
• hydrogen bonding
• dipole-dipole
• dispersion (weakest)
 Intermolecular Forces

Ion-Dipole Forces
Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule

Ion-Dipole Interaction

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 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction
between they hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond
and an electronegative O, N, or F atom.
A H… B or A H…A
A & B are N, O, or F

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Why is the hydrogen bond considered a “special”
dipole-dipole interaction?

Decreasing molar mass

Decreasing boiling point

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Example 11.2
Which of the following can form hydrogen bonds with water?

CH3OCH3

CH4

F2

HCOOH

Na+
Example 11.2
Strategy A species can form hydrogen bonds with water if it
contains one of the three electronegative elements (F, O, or N)
or it has a H atom bonded to one of these three elements.

Solution There are no electronegative elements (F, O, or N) in

either CH4 or Na+. Therefore, only CH3OCH3, F2, and HCOOH
can form hydrogen bonds with water.
Example 11.2
Check Note that HCOOH (formic acid) can form hydrogen
bonds with water in two different ways.

HCOOH forms hydrogen

bonds
with two H2O molecules.
 Intermolecular Forces

Dipole-Dipole Forces
Attractive forces between polar molecules

Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

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 Intermolecular Forces
Dispersion Forces
Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary
dipoles induced in atoms or molecules

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction 14

 Intermolecular Forces
Dispersion Forces Continued

Polarizability is the ease with which the electron distribution

in the atom or molecule can be distorted.

Polarizability increases with:

• greater number of electrons
• more diffuse electron cloud

Dispersion forces usually

increase with molar mass.

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What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between each of the
following molecules?

HBr
HBr is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are
also dispersion forces between HBr molecules.

CH4
CH4 is nonpolar: dispersion forces.

S O
SO2 O
SO2 is a polar molecule: dipole-dipole forces. There are
also dispersion forces between SO2 molecules. 16
Example 11.1
What type(s) of intermolecular forces exist between the
following pairs?

(a)HBr and H2S

(b)Cl2 and CBr4

(c)I2 and

(d)NH3 and C6H6

Example 11.1
Strategy Classify the species into three categories: ionic,
polar (possessing a dipole moment), and nonpolar. Keep in
mind that dispersion forces exist between all species.

Solution
(a)Both HBr and H2S are polar molecules. Therefore, the
intermolecular forces present are dipole-dipole forces, as well
as dispersion forces.

(b)Both Cl2 and CBr4 are nonpolar, so there are only dispersion
forces between these molecules.
Example 11.1
(c) I2 is a homonuclear diatomic molecule and therefore
nonpolar, so the forces between it and the ion are
ion-induced dipole forces and dispersion forces.

(d) NH3 is polar, and C6H6 is nonpolar. The forces are dipole-
induced dipole forces and dispersion forces.
Example
Fluid - A gas or a liquid; a substance that can flow.
Surface tension - The measure of the elastic force in
the surface of a liquid. It is the amount of energy
required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid
by a unit area.
Capillary action -The tendency of a liquid to rise in
narrow tubes or to be drawn into small openings.
Viscosity A measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.
Vapor  A gaseous substance that exist naturally as a
liquid or solid at normal temperature
.
Example

Vaporization The change of phase from liquid to vapor

(gaseous phase).
Vapor pressure of a liquid The equilibrium pressure of a vapor
above its liquid; that is, the pressure exerted by the vapor
above the surface of the liquid in a closed container
Boiling point The temperature at which a liquid boils. The
boiling point of a liquid when the external pressure is 1 atm is
called the normal boiling point.
Molar heat of vaporization (ΔHvap) The energy (usually in
kilojoules) required to vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at a given
temperature.
 Properties of Liquids

Surface tension is the amount of energy required to stretch

or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area.

Strong
intermolecular
forces

High
surface
tension

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Surface Tension = resistance of a liquid to an increase in
its surface area
Surface molecules are not involved in all possible
intermolecular bonding
Requires energy to go the surface, so liquid resists
increases in surface area
The higher the intermolecular forces, the higher the
surface tension

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2. Capillary Action = spontaneous rising of a liquid up a
narrow tube
a. Adhesive Forces = polar liquid has intermolecular
forces with polar surface
b. Cohesive Forces = intermolecular forces of the
liquid for itself
c. Water: Adhesive (H-Bonding) > Cohesive, so
concave meniscus
d. Mercury: Cohesive (London) > Adhesive, so
convex meniscus

Capillary action, also known as capillarity, is a

result of intermolecular attraction between the
liquid and solid materials.

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 Properties of Liquids

Cohesion is the intermolecular attraction between like molecules

Adhesion is an attraction between unlike molecules

Adhesion

Cohesion

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Capillary action seen as water climbs to different levels in glass tubes of
different diameters. Credit: Dr. Clay Robinson, PhD, West Texas A&M University

A fresh-cut stalk of celery is placed into a glass of water that has 26

been colored with food coloring.
 Properties of Liquids

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow.

Strong
intermolecular
forces

High
viscosity

Viscosity is expressed in units of centipoise. The table below gives viscosities of liquids of some
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pure substances. Water has viscosity of 1 centipoise or 0.001 Pa/s at 20oC.
Given molecular structures of water and glycerol,
can you tell why glycerol has a higher viscosity
than water?

Glycerol

Water

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Liquids that have strong intermolecular forces
have higher viscosities than those that have
weak intermolecular forces.

What effect temperature would have

on viscosity.

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Liquid Viscosity (in centipoise, cps)
Water 1
Milk 3
Blood 4 to 10
Castor oil 1000
Latex house paint 1500
Hotcake syrup 5000
Honey 10000
Hershey’s chocolate syrup 10000 to 25000
Ketchup 50000
butter 250,000
Lava 4,300,000
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Vapor Pressure of a Liquid

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 Measurement of Vapor Pressure

Before At
Evaporation Equilibrium
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• The pressure exerted by the gas in equilibrium with
a liquid in a closed container at a given temperature
is called the equilibrium vapor pressure or
simply vapor pressure of the liquid.

• The equilibrium vapor pressure is the maximum

vapor pressure of a liquid at a given temperature
and that it is constant at a constant temperature. It
increases with temperature.

• The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction,

the lower the vapor pressure of a liquid.

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Vapor pressure of water vs. temperature

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 The stronger the intermolecular forces of attraction,35
the lower the vapor pressure of a liquid.
Molar heat of vaporization (Hvap) is the energy required to
vaporize 1 mole of a liquid at its boiling point.

The heat of vaporization may be considered a measure of the

strength of intermolecular forces in a liquid. If the
intermolecular attraction is strong, it takes a lot of energy to free
the molecules from the liquid phase and the heat of
vaporization will be high.

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The boiling point is the temperature at which the
(equilibrium) vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the
external pressure.

The normal boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid

boils when the external pressure is 1 atm.

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 The critical temperature (Tc) is the temperature above which
the gas cannot be made to liquefy, no matter how great the
applied pressure.

The critical pressure

(Pc) is the minimum
pressure that must be
applied to bring about
liquefaction at the
critical temperature.

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Heating Curve

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A phase diagram summarizes the conditions at which a
substance exists as a solid, liquid, or gas.

Phase Diagram of Water

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Phase Diagram of Carbon At 1 atm
Dioxide CO2 (s) CO2 (g)

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Effect of Increase in Pressure on the Melting Point
of Ice and the Boiling Point of Water

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