.

HVAC - HEATING VENTILATION AND AIRCONDITIONING

ASHRAE - AMERICAN SOCIETY OF HEATING, REFRIGERATION
AND AIR CONDITIONING ENGINEER.
HUMAN COMFORT CONDITIONS.

•TEMPERATURE : 68-76® FARENHEIT , 20-25 ®C

•RELATIVE HUMIDITY: 30% - 60% (50% recommended)

•QUALITY OF AIR : ODOUR, VELOCITY(0.15 m/s to 0 .18 m/s),

NOISE(50 nc).

HEATING: Increasing temperature of air by heating air if the

temperature of particular location is less than the standard comfort
temperature range by using electrical resistance heater, boilers, etc.
Scope and application: Cold climate countries like USA, Canada,
Australia, England etc.
1. Designing a large building project is an extremely complex task.
It may take month or even year and involve no of senior design
engineers depending upon the size of the project.

2. The design of private residence is much simpler and may involve

only few engineers

3. The design of the HVAC system for the large projects is the
responsibility of the HVAC consulting company. Consulting
engineers may also carry out other duties such as cost
estimation, inspection and field supervision of installation.

4. Each of this tasks is performed in co-ordination with architects,

who carry out the overall building planning and design.
•Co-ordination of work between the architects and other departments
is an important and difficult task. An error in the coordination will
increase the cost and time for the execution of project.

The design of HVAC system involves determining:

•Building survey
•Selection of system (classification of machine)
•Load calculations (costing and heating loads )
•Machine selection
•Duct designing
•Fan selection
•Chill water pipe designing
•Fitting selection
•Pump selection
•Selection of type and size of equipment
•Planning the location of each piece of equipment in the building.
THE MECHANICAL OR THE HVAC CONTRACTING COMPANY
TAKE S THE HVAC CONSULTING DESIGN DRAWING
(ENGINEERING OR CONTRACT DRAWING) PREPARES THE
SINGLE LINE DRAWING AND SEND TO ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT WHICH CONVERTS SINGLE LINE DESIGN
DRAWINGS TO SHOP DRAWINGS WITH THE HELP OF HVAC
DRAGHTSMEN.

SHOP DRAWINGS ARE DETAILED DRAWINGS, LARGE SCALED

(A0,A1) OF THE HVAC SYSTEM WHICH WILL BE NECESSARY TO
INITIATE AND EXECUTE THE OVERALL SITE PROJECT WORKS.

The HVAC Contracting company hire their people who incudes

•Sheet metal contractors (duct contractors)

•Pipe fitter (chilled water pipes)
•Insulation contractors(DUCT AND PIPE).
• The HVAC contracting company also purchases all necessary HVAC
machines, tools and materials to their job.

•The engineer first carries out a take-off quantity i.e. they list all the
machines and materials that is shown on the drawings with
specifications. This can be very lengthy and involving task. This is
done to estimate the overall quantity of materials that are need to be
ordered .

•Overheads and labour charges must also be determined and planned

accordingly as per schedule.

•When the installation is complete, the HVAC contracting company

test , adjusts and balance the HVAC system and calls for QA and QC
procedures.

•After the completion of Site work and quality check procedures. AS-
BUILT drawings can be prepared ass per site modifications for final
 PHYSICS USED IN HVAC:

HEAT: Heat is a form of energy, it transfer from one body to another

due to change in temperature, Units KJ, BTU.
BTU : It is defined as the amount of heat to be added to raise the
temperature of one pound of the water by one (1) Fahrenheit.
Unit of Refrigeration:
A ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of cooling effect produced by the
uniform melting of one ton (2000 lb) of ice in 24 hours
1 TR = 2000 lb x 144 btu/lb = 12000 btu/hr
24 hrs
Mathematically:

Latent heat of ice = 144 btu/lb = 335 KJ/kg

1 TR = 335 x 1000 kg in 24 hrs

1 TR = 335x1000/(24x60) KJ/min

But in actual practice 1 TR = 210 KJ/min

1 TR = 3.5 KW
US AND SI UNITS: There are 2 systems of units and in HVAC
Industry one is called INCH-POUND(IP) US, imperial or English
system. The other is called S.I system (international system of unit)
cm , kg.

Examples of English system.

•Distance- feet or inch
•Area – square feet or square inch
•Volume- CFM cubic feet per minute
•Temperature- ®F

Example of S.I system.

•Distance- meter
•Area- square meter
•Volume- cubic meter
•Temperature- ®C
S.I units are part of a broader system of units called metric system.
The S.I system of units uses only one unit of measurement for each
physical characteristic.
Conversion or equivalents: the units have fixed numerical relationship
to each other called equivalent or conversion factor

Length or distance:

•1 MT = 3.28’ (feet)= 39” (inch)

•1 MT= 100 cm = 1000 mm

AREA:
•1 square meter = 10.76 square feet
•1 square feet = 0.093 square meter
VOLUME:

•U.S GALLON = 3.78 LITERS

•1 CFM (CUBIC FEET/MINUTE)= 1.7 CMH ( CUBIC METER/HOUR)

TONNAGE:

•1 TR = 210 KJ/MIN
= 3.5 KW
= 12000 BTU/HR
= 400 CFM ( THUMB RULE APPROXIMATE FACTOR
DEPENDS ON OTHER PARAMERTERS)
= 2.4 GPM
= 3000 KCAL/HR
THUMB RULE FOR TONNAGE:

•ONE TR WILL COVER 100 SQUARE FEET (9 SQUARE METER)

FOR EXPOSED ZONE

•ONE TR WILL COVER 130 SQUARE FEET ( 12 SQUARE METER)

FOR COVERED ZONE

TEMPERATURE:

It is a measure of thermal activity or degree of hotness or coldness

in a body. This activity depends on the velocity of molecules.
•Celsius or centigrade scale
C = (F-32)/1.8 .
•Fahrenheit scale
F = 1.8C + 32
The melting point of ice is 0®C and the boiling point of water is taken
as 100 ®C

The scale between these two points is divided between 100 equal parts
and each point can be counted as 1 degree.

The melting point of ice is fixed as 32®F and boiling point of water is
taken as 212®F

The scale between these two points is divided between 180 equal parts
and each point can be counted as 1 Fahrenheit.

Pressure:
It is defined as a force per unit area. P = F/A, units Pascal's
(n/sq metre), psi(lb/sq inch), bar(pound/square inch), atm kgf/sq cm.
1 bar = 14 psi= 100000 pa = 1 atm .
Enthalpy :

It is the sum of internal energy and the product of pressure

and volume . This sum can be represented as (u + pv) is termed as
enthalpy. It is denoted by H.

Heat transferred at constant pressure or heat content of the

body is called enthalpy. Units (Kj/hr )or( Btu/hr).

Sensible and Latent Heat:

Sensible heat :

A sensible heat change was described as a process where

the temp of a substance change when heat is added to or removed
from it, but there is no change in the state of the substance.
Latent heat :
Latent heat is the heat added to or removed from a
substance which cause change of state but without change in
temperature.
REFRIGERANT: It is a heat carrying medium during the complete
cycle with low boiling point and high latent heat of vaporization.
Desirable properties of Refrigerant:
•Low boiling point
•Higher critical temp.
•High latent heat of vaporization.
•Low specific heat of liquid
•Low specification volume of vapour
•Non-corrosive to metal
•Non-flammable and non-explosive
•Non-toxic
•Low cost
•Easy to liquefy at moderate pressure and temp
and it is from the family of HFC refrigerant.
Classification of Refrigerants.

•CFC : Chloro fluro carbon contains ozone depletion chlorine .

Ex R-12 or R-502
•HCFC: Hydro chlorofluro carbons it contains less chlorine than CFC.
Ex R-22,R-408A, R-409A
•HFC: Hydro fluro Carbon.(no chlorine content). Ex R134a,
R404,R410A and R507
R134A is also known as tetra fluro ethane
(CF3CH2F) and it is from the family of HFC refrigerant.
R-410A : It is a binary blend of hydrofluro carbon or HFC compounds ,
50% of R32 and 50% of R-125
No chlorine content, no ozone depletion potential . Global warming
potential GWP = 1725
NO PROPERTIES R-134A
1 BOILING POINT -14.9®F OR 26.1®C

2 AUTO IGNITION TEMP 1418®F OR 770®C

3 OZONE DEPLETION LAYER 0

4 SOLUBILITY IN WATER 0.11% BY WEIGHT AT

25®C
5 CRITICAL TEMP 252®F OR 122®C

6 CYLINDRICAL COLOR CODE LIGHT BLUE

7 GLOBAL WARMING 1200

POTENTIAL(GWP)
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
CYCLE:
PROCESS 1-2 : At point 1 the refrigerant is in the liquid state at a
relatively high pressure and high temp. It flows to 2 through a restriction
called the flow control or expansion device. The refrigerant losses
pressure going through restriction. The pressure at 2 is so low that a
small portion of the refrigerant flashes (vaporises) into a gas. But in
order to vaporize it must gain heat (which it takes from the portion of the
refrigerant that did not vaporize) thus cooling the mixture and resulting
in low temperature.
PROCESS 2-3 : The refrigerant flows through a heat exchanger
called evaporator. This H.E has two circuits. The refrigerant
circulates in one and in the other; the fluid to be cooled (usually air
or water) flows. The fluid to be cooled is slightly at higher temp
than the refrigerant. Therefore heat transferred from it to the
refrigerant. Producing cooling effect desired. The refrigerant boils
because of the heat it receives in the evaporator. By the time it
leaves evaporator, it completely vaporized.
PROCESS 3-4 : Leaving the evaporator, the refrigerant is a gas
at low temp and low pressure. In order to be able to use it
again to achieve the refrigerating effect continuously, it must
be brought back to conditions at 1 i.e. liquid at high pressure.
The first step in this process is to increase the pressure of the
refrigerant gas by using a compressor, compressing the gas
also results in increasing temp .

PROCESS 4-1 : The refrigerant leaves the compressor as a gas

at high temp and pressure. In order to change it to liquid,
heat must be removed from it. This is accomplished in heat
exchanger called the condenser. The refrigerant flows through
one circuit, a cooling fluid ( air , water) flows at a temp
lower than the refrigerant to that of fluid and as a result, the
refrigerant condense to liquid.
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: This law states that when two systems
are each other in thermal equilibrium with third system, then the two
systems are also in thermal equilibrium with on another
 .

First law of thermodynamic : It states that heat and work are mutually
convertible. According to this law, when a closed system undergoes
thermodynamics cycle, the net heat transfer is equal to the net work
transfer.
 Clausius Statement:
According to clausius statement, it is impossible for a self-acting
machine working in a cyclic process to transfer heat from a body at a
lower temp to a body at higher-temp without the aid of an external
agent or Heat always flow from higher temp level to a lower temp
level without any external energy.
Humidity Ratio :

It is also called as specific humidity or moisture content. It is the

mass of water vapour present in 1 kg of dry air and is generally
expressed in terms of grams/kg of dry air(metric) or grains/lb of dry
air-(English).

Relative humidity:

the ratio of actual water vapour pressure in the air to the vapour
pressure if the air were to saturated at that dry bulb temp. it is
expressed in percentage.
Ex: if the R.H of air is 50%, it means it contains half the amount of
moisture possible at the existing DBT.
Saturated air:
When the dew point, dry bulb and wet bulb temp are the same, then
the air is saturated. It can hold no moisture, when the air is in
saturated condition; moisture entering the air displaces moisture
with in the air.

Enthalpy:

The enthalpy of atmospheric air is the sum of the individual

enthalpies of dry air and water vapour.

 Psychometric : It is the study of the properties of moist air. The

properties of the air and water vapour mixture are called
psychometric properties.
 Dry Air: Atmospheric air without presence of water vapour is
called dry air. It is combination of 79% of nitrogen and 21% of
oxygen by weight.

 Moist Air: It is the mixture of dry air and water vapour. The
amount of water vapour present varies according to the
temperature.

 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT): It is the temperature of the air

measured using an ordinary thermometer. This temperature is not
affected by the water vapour present in the air.

 Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT): It is the temperature measured

by ordinary thermometer when its bulb is covered with wet cloth
and exposed to air. It is always less than DBT.
 Wet Bulb Depression (WBD): The difference between the dry
bulb temperature and the wet bulb temperature. If the air is fully
saturated then the wet bulb depression is zero.

 Dew Point Temperature (DPT): The temperature at which the

water vapour in the air begins to condense when the temperature
of the air is continuously reduced.

 Humidity: the quantity of water vapour present in the air is

known as humidity. It depends on the temperature of the air and
is independent of the pressure of the air.

 Relative Humidity: It is defined as the ratio of mass of water

vapour present in a given volume of air at a given temperature to
the mass of water vapour present in the same volume and
temperature of the air when it is fully saturated.
PSYCHOMETRIC CHART:
There are six dimensions of parameters involved in defining an air
condition. These parameters, are inter-related between each
other. This chart is used to compare different physical parameters of
air at given conditions. Using this chart if any to parameters are
identified than all the other parameters can be calculated. Dry bulb
temperature, wet bulb temperature, dew point temperature, humidity
ratio, relative humidity, enthalpy (heat content) are the parameters
indicated at different axis. Psychometric chart can either be
represented in S.I. or metric units. Properties of the chart includes,

•bounded by two perpendicular axes, and a curved line these are,

•dry bulb temperature line on one axis,
•specific humidity line on another axis,
•and dew point, or 100% relative humidity curve
•different values of dry bulb temperature along the dry bulb axis,
different values of specific humidity along the specific humidity
axis,

different curves of relative humidity. 100% being farthest from dry

bulb temperature axis, and 0% being on the axis itself,

enthalpy values, on a slanted axis,

wet bulb temperature, on almost coincidental lines as the

enthalpy values,

specific volume slopes, inclined towards specific humidity axis

and the sensible heat to total heat ratio, vis-á-vis, room slope
CLASSIFICATION OF AIR CONDITIONERS OR AIR-
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
WINDOWS AIR CONDITIONERS

SPLIT AIR CONDITIONERS

DUCTABLE AIR CONDITIONERS

PACKAGE AIR CONDITIONERS

DX OR CHILLER SYSTEM

VRV OR VRF SYSTEMS(VARIABLE REFRIGERATIONS FLOW

OR VOLUME )
 AIR COOLED CHILLER SYSTEM
WATER COOLED CHILLER SYSTEM
WINDOW AIR CONDITIONERS:
Window air conditioners are ideal for single rooms and comprise
compressor, expansion coil, evaporator, condenser, cooling coil and
many more wrought into a box. You can fit this box in a small slot in the
room’s wall.
Capacity - .75 to 3 ton.(vary as per load and location)

Application – residential small spaces, shops and offices.

Advantages- low initial cost, compact in size, easy to install, low

maintenance.

Disadvantages – No ventilation, noisy, not so efficient, non-uniform

distribution air flow, exposure to outside atmosphere through wall is
required, looks ugly in building elevation.
SPLIT AIR CONDITIONERS
Split air conditioner consists of two different parts namely the indoor
unit and the outdoor unit. Outdoor unit comprising compressors,
expansion valve and condenser is fixed outside a room. The
evaporator, cooling fan and coil that make up the indoor unit are
fitted inside the room. This kind of air conditioner can cool two
rooms, simultaneously.

Types of split units

High walls, cassette type, free stand, cube air conditioners

Capacity: 1 to 5 ton

Advantages:
No window or outside wall is required for installation, low noise,
looks nice to interior, low maintenance

Disadvantages:
Ventilation not as per ASHRAE, high running cost, skill technicians
are required for installation, more expensive than window ac.
Comparison between window , split and cassette type A/C

AC Parameters Window AC Split AC Cassette AC

Suitable For Small rooms Any room with or Large indoor spaces
with a window without a window
sill
Noise Relatively on Minimal noise Silent operation
the higher side
Capacity range 0.75 ton to 2 0.8 to 4 ton 1 ton to 8 ton
ton
Advanced Humidity Humidity control, dust Humidity control, dust filter, bacteria filter
features control, dust filter, bacteria filter
filter
Interference Slight possibility Designer indoor units Barely interferes with interior decor
with home to interfere with blend well with wall
décor window curtains decor
and drapes
Ease of Minimal effort Indoor and outdoor Needs specialised false ceiling
installation required units need some
amount of effort for
installation
Ductable split air
conditioning system.
Ductable machines can be considered as bigger version of split A/C
with options to attach ducts and ventilation as per standards.

The indoor machine is concealed type and it is ceiling suspended.

Capacity: 3 ton to 25 ton

Advantages:
•Having ventilation as per ASHRAE.
•Air flow is uniformly distributed.
•Low noise
•Can be managed or decorated as per the interior designs

Disadvantages:
•Hard copper piping is required
•High initial cost
•High maintenance cost
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING

There are two types of central air conditioning systems: Direct

Expansion (DX) type of central air condition plants and Chilled
Water type of the central air conditioning plants. In the DX system
the air used for cooling the room or space is directly passed over the
cooling coil of the refrigeration plant. In case of the chilled water
system the refrigeration system is used to first chill the water, which
is then used to chill the air used for cooling the rooms or spaces.

DX SYSTEM (DIRECT EXPANSION

In the direct expansion or DX types of air central conditioning
plants the air used for cooling space is directly chilled by the
refrigerant in the cooling coil of the air handling unit.

 Since the air is cooled directly by the refrigerant the cooling

efficiency of the DX plants is higher. However, it is not always feasible
to carry the refrigerant piping to the large distances hence, direct
expansion or the DX type of central air conditioning system is usually
used for cooling the small buildings or the rooms on the single floor

Though the efficiency of the DX plants is higher, the air handling

units and the refrigerant piping cannot be kept at very long distance
since there will be lots of drop in pressure of the refrigerant along the
way and there will also be cooling losses. Further, for the long piping,
large amounts of refrigerant will be needed which makes the system
very expensive and also prone to the instance problems like the
leakage of the refrigerant.
•Due to these reasons the DX type central air conditioning systems are
used for small air conditioning systems of about 5 to 15 tons in small
buildings or the number of rooms on a single floor. If there are large air
conditioning loads, then multiple direct expansion systems can be
installed. In such cases, when there is lesser heat load one of the plants

CHILLED WATER CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING PLANTS

AS FOLLOWS:
•In the chilled water plants the refrigerant first chills the water or
brine solution is chilled to very low temperatures of about 6 to 8
degree Celsius by the refrigeration plant. This chilled water is
pumped to various floors of the building and its different parts.

•In each of these parts the air handling units are installed, which
comprise of the cooling coil, blower and the ducts. The chilled
water flows through the cooling coil.

•The blower absorbs return air from the air conditioned rooms
that are to be cooled via the ducts. This air passes over the cooling
coil and gets cooled and is then passed to the air conditioned
space

•The chilled water types of central air conditioning plants are

installed in the place where whole large buildings, shopping mall,
airport, hotel, etc, comprising of several floors are to be air
conditioned.
 AIR HANDLING UNITS

•Commonly known as AHU, they are mainly two types ceiling

suspended upto 25 tons and floor mounted above 25 tons .
•The blower is connected to motor with the help of belts and pulleys
and cooling coil is provided to for cooling effect where secondary
refrigerant is runned in those coils.
Aluminium or other metal ducts are used for equal distribution of
air connected to these AHU. Usually AHU capacity ranges from
2000 CFM to upto 10000 CFM
CENTRAL COOLING SYSTEM SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM :
PACKAGE AIR CONDITIONERS
•The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small
air conditioning capacities up to 5 tons. The central air conditioning
systems are used for where the cooling loads extend beyond 20 tons.
The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in
between these two extremes.

• The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated

capacities of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons. These units are used commonly in
places like restaurants, telephone exchanges, homes, small halls, etc

•As the name implies, in the packaged air conditioners all the
important components of the air conditioners are enclosed in a single
casing like window AC. Thus the compressor, cooling coil, air
handling unit and the air filter are all housed in a single casing and
assembled at the factory location.
•Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these systems,
the packaged air conditioners are divided into two types: ones with
water cooled condenser and the ones with air cooled condensers. Both
these systems have been described below:

Packaged Air Conditioners with Water Cooled Condenser

•In these packaged air conditions the condenser is cooled by the water.
The condenser is of shell and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along
the tube side and the cooling water flowing along the shell side. The
water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain
functioning of the air conditioning system.
•In these packaged air conditions the condenser is cooled by the water.
The condenser is of shell and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along
the tube side and the cooling water flowing along the shell side. The
water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain
functioning of the air conditioning system.

•In the packaged units with the water cooled condenser, the compressor
is located at the bottom along with the condenser (refer the figure below).
Above these components the evaporator or the cooling coil is located. The
air handling unit comprising of the centrifugal blower and the air filter
is located above the cooling coil.

•The centrifugal blower has the capacity to handle large volume of air
required for cooling a number of rooms. From the top of the package air
conditioners the duct comes out that extends to the various rooms that
are to be cooled
Packaged Air Conditioners with Air Cooled Condensers
 In this packaged air conditioners the condenser of the
refrigeration system is cooled by the atmospheric air. There is an
outdoor unit that comprises of the important components like the
compressor, condenser and in some cases the expansion valve (refer
the figure below). The outdoor unit can be kept on the terrace or
any other open place where the free flow of the atmospheric air is
available.
•The fan located inside this unit sucks the outside air and blows it over
the condenser coil cooling it in the process. The condenser coil is made
up of several turns of the copper tubing and it is finned externally. The
packaged ACs with the air cooled condensers are used more commonly
than the ones with water cooled condensers since air is freely available it
is difficult maintain continuous flow of the water.

•The cooling unit comprising of the expansion valve, evaporator, the air
handling blower and the filter are located on the floor or hanged to the
ceiling. The ducts coming from the cooling unit are connected to the
various rooms that are to be cooled.

•They can be used from capacities ranging 3 tons to 125 tons

VRV OR VRF ( VARIABLE REFRIGERANT VOLUME OR FLOW)
•Variable Refrigerant Volume (also called VRF or Variable Refrigerant
Flow).  This refers to DX air conditioning systems that utilize VFD
(variable speed) compressor technology to modulate the flow of
refrigerant between condensing unit (outdoor unit) to the fan coil/air
handling unit (indoor unit).
•VRV system provides considerable savings on energy, costs, and space
requirements. The VRV's innovative inverter technology ensures the
kind of performance required by building owners in every stage of
operation
•VRV system technology eliminates most of the traditional
limitations of DX split system such as piping length, turn-down, and
ambient temperature limitations, capacity 4 to 40 tons.
•The indoor temp sensor , according to actual load of the indoor unit,
controls the electronic expansion valve on the refrigerant medium pipe of
the indoor unit and it controls compressor of the outdoor unit according
to change in refrigerant medium.
•To individually cool or heat a number of areas, the VRV Inverter
system controls the capacity of cooling only by means of an inverter
compressor to match the demand of indoor units. Precise temperature
levels and optimum energy efficiency are thereby ensured at all times.

Advantages.
•Max efficiency
•Individual temp control is possible as per zone requirement
•Low space requirement

Disadvantages
•In case of refrigerant leakage from any of indoors, complete refrigerant
will release from the circuit, this will increase maintenance
•No fresh air option , except in ductable indoors
CHILLERS IN DETAILS

•A HVAC chiller system is complete package of HVAC system which

may consists of multi condensers, multi compressor but only one
evaporator, internal piping and other components.
•A chiller is a machine that removes heat from the liquid via vapor
compression or absorption cycle. HVAC water chillier produces chilled
water which is then circulated throughout the building or space up to
cooling coils in air handling units.
•HVAC CHILLER system is basically an assembly of various types of
equipments installed together to provide heating and cooling along with
indoor climate control. HVAC systems involve mechanical, electrical
and I & C components to provide comfort to the occupants of
building/space or to preserve goods, products or items placed in space.
•HVAC cooling systems may be integrated with HVAC heating systems
or these may be installed separately depending upon HVAC design..
HVAC Chiller System Basic Components

An HVAC System may include the following basic components or units:

•Chilled water pumps

•Cooling water pumps
•Electrical power supply control or Motor control centre (MCC)
•Cooling towers
•Piping for chilled water and cooling water or condenser side water
•Valves for chilled water and cooling water sides
•Air handling units (AHUs) , heating coils and cooling Coils
•Ducts in ventilation system (supply ducts and return ducts)
•Fan Coil Units (FCUs) and thermostats
•HVAC Diffusers and grills
•HVAC controls (instrumentation & Control components) installed at
various locations
•HVAC software for building HVAC control or building management
system (BMS)
•Blowers move air on cooling coils which is then distributed into various
portions of space or building for providing comfort or preserving
goods/items as per HVAC design.
•Air is distributed through supply ducts and return air is collected in air
handling units with the help of return ducts. Chilled water and cooling
water pumps provide energy to keep the chilled and cooling water
moving.

The plant capacities up to 50 TR (tons of refrigeration) are

usually considered as small capacity, 50 – 250 TR as medium capacity
and over 250 TR as large capacity units.
 A large company may have a bank of units, often
with common chilled water pumps, condenser water pumps, cooling
towers, as an off-site utility. The same company may also have two or
three levels of refrigeration and air conditioning such as a combination
of:

•Comfort air conditioning (20 – 25 oC)

•Chilled water system (8 – 10 oC)

•Brine system (sub-zero applications)

 Depending on applications, there are several
options / combinations of air conditioning, which are available for use:

•Residential Air conditioning (Independent units for small spaces )

•Fan coil units in a larger system( hotels, malls, commercial spaces)

•Air handling units in a larger system( high rise multi store buildings,
large spaces)
 The following refrigeration systems exist for
industrial processes (e.g. chilling plants) and domestic purposes
(modular units, i.e. refrigerators):

•Small capacity modular units of the direct expansion type similar to

domestic refrigerators.

•Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary

coolant for a temperature range over typically 5 deg Centigrade. They
can also be used for ice bank formation.

•Brine plants, which use brines as a lower temperature, secondary

coolant for typically sub-zero temperature applications, which come as
modular unit capacities as well as large centralized plant capacities.
SELECTION TIPS FOR AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

Air conditioning is a combined process that performs many

functions simultaneously. It conditions the air, provides heating and
cooling, controls and maintains the temperature, and humidity, ensures
air movement, air cleanliness, sound level, and pressure differential in a
space within predetermined limits for the comfort and health of the
occupants. A cooling system is a part of a heating, ventilation and air-
conditioning (HVAC) system that provides space cooling.

This course discusses the characteristics of an ideal cooling

system for diverse applications. The course is divided in three parts:
Part I Description of Cooling Systems
Part II Key Factors in Selection of Cooling Systems
Part III Key Factors Determining Heat Rejection Systems
PART – I DESCRIPTION OF COOLING SYSTEMS

There are literally dozen or hundreds of ways in which

basic HVAC components may be assembled into systems but there are
two basic configurations in which the refrigerant cycle is applied. Both
have to do with how the “cooling effect” is supplied to the desired
location.

PART II - KEY FACTORS IN SELECTION OF COOLING SYSTEM

Now that we understand the conceptual arrangement of

air-conditioning cooling systems, the distinction between the local DX
and central chilled water systems is critical from a mechanical,
architectural and energy management perspective. Let’s analyze the key
factors that determine the selection of system.
DX SYSTEM

Check out this statement “DX system is suitable for a single

thermal zone application”.
What does this mean?
Why it is so?
To answer this, first understand the concept of thermal zone. A
thermal zone is referred to a space or group of spaces within a
building with heating and cooling requirements that are
sufficiently similar so that desired conditions (e.g. temperature)
can be maintained throughout using a single sensor (e.g.
thermostat or temperature sensor). Each thermal zone must be
‘separately controlled’ if conditions conducive to comfort are to be
provided by an HVAC system. Few examples below illustrate and
clarify the concept of a zone.
 In a building, the perimeter areas with large glazing
& exposure are prone to larger solar radiation. Such areas shall
experience higher heat load than the indoor core spaces and must be
separately controlled.

• In a commercial building, the space containing electronic processing

equipment such as photocopiers, fax machines and printers see much
larger heat load than the other areas and hence is a different thermal
zone.
• A conference room designed for 50 people occupancy shall
experience lower temperatures when it is half or quarterly occupied.
The design thus shall keep provision for a dedicated temperature
controller for this zone.
• In an airport a smoking room shall be categorized as an independent
zone for health and safety reasons. A good air-conditioning system
should not allow mixing of smoke contaminants with return air of
other public lounge
 A 1000 seat theatre shall be treated an
independent zone than the entrance concourse or cafeteria as the
dynamics of occupancy are different.

• A hotel lobby area is different from the guest rooms or the restaurant
area.

• A hospital testing laboratory, isolation rooms and operation theatre

demand different indoor conditions/pressure relationships than the
rest of areas and thus shall be treated as a separate zones.

• A control room or processing facilities in industrial set up may

require a high degree of cleanliness/positive pressure to prevent
ingress of dust/hazardous elements and thus may be treated as
separate zone.
In nutshell any area that requires different
temperature, humidity and filtration needs or is prone
to huge variations in thermal loads shall be
categorized as an independent zone. The reason that
most modern offices interiors have low partitions is
not to do only with aesthetic and spacious looks; it has
relevance to keep air-conditioning simple and
effective. Zoning may very well be categorized as an
architectural responsibility since it requires a good
understanding of building function and schedules.
Let’s check out why DX systems are only suitable for single thermal
zone application. The reasoning is as follows:

1. DX systems do not provide modulating control. The capacity

control in DX system with fully hermetic sealed compressor is
generally accomplished by cycling the compressor ON and OFF in
response to the signals from a thermostat. What this means is that
the DX system will only have one point of control – typically a
thermostat. Thus two rooms with thermostat controllers set at say
22°F and 28°F shall conflict with each other or in other words the
two rooms cannot achieve the set conditions unless the rooms are
served with independent units. Semi-hermetic compressors offer the
benefit of being able to unload pairs of cylinders within a single
compressor. For instance, a compressor with six cylinders can be
staged to operate at 100%, 67% and 33% capacity by operating on
six, four, or two cylinders respectively. These provide only limited
step modulation.
The issue of system control leads to the concept of HVAC zoning
just like architectural zoning. Active HVAC system may be
designed to condition a single space or a portion of a space from a
location within or directly adjacent to the space. 2. DX systems
cannot be networked conveniently. The refrigerant piping plays a
key role in connection of various components in terms of size,
length and pressure drop. Split units installation is restricted by
distance criteria between the condensing unit and the evaporator,
which is usually 30 to 40 feet for smaller units and around 100 to
120 feet for larger units. For large buildings consisting of multi-
zones, DX system may be viewed as collection of multiple
independent units placed at different locations in a distributed
network with each unit working in isolation. Each DX system is
thus local self-contained unit consisting of its own compressor/s,
evaporator coil, fan, condensing unit and filtration unit
Depending upon the capacities required and areas served the
DX system could be room air conditioners, split air-
conditioners or package air conditioners. All these serve a
single thermal zone and have its major components located in
one of the following ways:

• Within the zone

• On the boundary between the zone and exterior environment
• Or directly adjacent to the zone
Newer DX Configurations/Options
Newer technology has found ways to combat the above
weaknesses if not fully at least substantially.
Variable Air Volume (VAV) Units for Ducted Package
Systems
Variable air volume (VAV) components can be fitted on the air
distribution ductwork thus affording good control of conditions
within the respective thermal zone. Variable air volume system
(VAV) delivers a constant temperature of air and responds to
changing thermal loads by varying the quantity of supply air.

Generally such a fitment on the whole system means a large

increase in cost. In a limited mode, like for instance just one cabin
to be zoned out in a full floor - one can install a VAV diffuser for
the cabin. Such a device has a motorised damper fitted on the air
outlet and the damper operates automatically in response to a
thermostat. In other words the diffuser admits or restricts supply
air to the cabin in response to the command of a thermostat. Such
devices cost about $ 300- for a 400 cfm size diffuser.
Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF) System for Multiple
Evaporators

The term variable refrigerant flow (VRF) refers to the ability of

the system to control the amount of refrigerant flowing to the
multiple evaporators, enabling the use of many evaporators of
differing capacities and configurations connected to single
condensing unit.

The arrangement provides an individualized comfort control,

and simultaneous heating and cooling in different zones. This
refrigerant flow control lies at the heart of VRF systems and is
the major technical challenge as well as the source of many of
the system’s advantages.
Many zones are possible, each with individual setpoint
control. Because VRF systems use variable speed compressors
with wide capacity modulation capabilities, they can maintain
precise temperature control, generally within ±1°F (±0.6°C),
according to manufacturers’ literature.

VRF system being the split installation is restricted by

distance criteria between the condensing unit and the
evaporator. Although few manufacturers’ literature states the
refrigerant lines can be as long as 500 feet, but when you read
the fine print, after the first ‘Tee’ from the condensing unit,
you are limited to 135 feet to the furthest unit. Other than the
restricted distance criteria between evaporator and condensing
unit, there are some legitimate concerns that need to be
addressed.
• VRF systems are complete, proprietary systems, from the controls
right up to the condensing units, refrigerant controllers, and all the
system components other than the refrigerant piping. That means
users do not have the flexibility to use "anybody’s" building control
and automation system to run these systems. You'll need a BacNet
or Lonworks black box to connect from your building DDC system
to the VRF system, and you can only monitor what it's doing, you
can't control it. • As the system has a larger spread, the refrigerant
pipes traverse long lengths - hence their pressure testing and
protection becomes critical. Long refrigerant piping loops also raise
concerns about oil return; • Long refrigerant lines also raise the
potential of refrigerant leaks, which can be a safety hazard. The
refrigerant leak especially if the system serves small rooms can
cause oxygen depletion.
So you need to limit the system size within reasonable limits
based on smallest room area served. For e.g. if the room area is
100 sq-ft, you would need to limit the refrigerant qty under
less than about 30 lbs. Contractors are concerned about long
refrigerant piping runs for multiple evaporators. They believe
that compliance with ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 15-2001,
Safety Standard for Refrigeration Systems, is difficult;

• VRF systems are expensive and complex. The complicity

involved in VRF/VRV is continuous and have to be dependent
on the Vendor who has supplied for life of equipment.
Multiple Compressors

A unit with two equally sized fully hermetic compressors may

operate at 100% and 50% capacity by starting or stopping one of
the two compressors. Unequally sized compressors provide greater
staging flexibility; for instance, a 30-ton unit with two
compressors rated at 10 tons and 20 tons will have capacity stages
at 33%, 67% and 100%.
Factors favoring DX system:

• One of the most common reasons for selecting a DX system,

especially in a smaller buildings is the lower installed cost than a
chilled-water system because it requires less field labor and has
fewer materials to install;

• DX systems tend to be distributed for larger buildings that

increase reliability; a building conditioned using DX system
may have a dozen or hundred of individual and independent
units located throughout the building. Failure of one or two of
the units may not impact the entire building. On a smaller scale
this may be viewed as a disadvantage unless standby is provided;
• If the tenants are paying the utility bills, multiple packaged DX
units may make it easier to track energy use, as only the specific
unit serving that tenant would be used to meet the individual
cooling requirements;
• DX systems are not complicated by interconnections with other
units. Maintenance of local systems tends to be simple and
available through numerous service providers;

• In buildings where a large number of spaces may be unoccupied

at any given time, such as dormitory, small hotels etc. the local DX
systems may be totally shut off in the unused spaces thus
providing potential energy savings;
• For small areas within full scale offices like communication
rooms or server / computer rooms, where it is necessary to have 24
hour air conditioning - it is possible to have independent split,
ancillary AC units exclusively for these areas;
• DX systems can be installed quickly and their operation is
relatively simple. Offer short delivery schedules and generally
available as factory standard off the shelf unit. Easy to install
and replace. Compact and require a smaller footprint than
alternatives;

• As a self contained system, a DX system may provide totally

individualized control options, for instance, if one room needs
heating while an adjacent one needs cooling, two local systems
can respond without conflict;

• DX unitary systems are ideal for retrofitting applications.

These may be used to supplement areas of inadequate service by
a building’s existing central system;
• Air cooled condensers can be located on the roof of the building
or even within the perimeter wall of the building. Cooling unit is
available in wide variation of floor, wall as well the ceiling
suspended units;

Limitations of DX system:

• DX systems cannot benefit from economies of scale. Capital

costs and the operating costs generally tend to be higher for
larger setups requiring 100TR or more. The building designer
must thoroughly evaluate all pertinent installation, operating,
and maintenance costs to make an informed decision;
• DX systems cannot be easily connected together to permit
centralized monitoring or energy management operations.
These can be centrally controlled with respect to on-off
functions only;

• DX units have capacity control limitations; compressor

unloading systems are generally step devices, which limit
capacity modulation. At low load conditions, the compressors
will cycle and unconditioned air will pass through the system
during the off cycle, which may cause temperature swings
(i.e. hot and cold spots) in the conditioned space;
Applications:

• The DX systems are suitable for small or medium sized

buildings free of multiple thermal zones and demanding
100 TR or less of air-conditioning. For big areas such as
Wal-Mart store requiring say 200 TR of refrigeration, DX
system may be viewed as 4 units of 50 TR each subject to
availability of space and aesthetics;

• DX systems are more effective for the services requiring

low temperature and low humidity conditions. The
application includes the grocery stores, fruit & vegetable
stores, meat processing units, instrument rooms,
laboratories, bio-medical labs, critical manufacturing and
process facilities;
• DX systems can be applied along with central chilled water
system for areas requiring 24hrs operation such as server
rooms, data centers etc. DX systems can be also be applied
for augmenting the HVAC needs in the existing central
HVAC systems necessitated due to expansion or addition of
more equipment
KEY FACTORS IN SELECTION OF CHILLED WATER
SYSTEMS

Chilled-water system predominate the large commercial

buildings where the cooling demand exceeds 200 tons of
refrigeration. The chilled water system can truly be
referred as central air conditioning system because these
can be easily networked to have multiple air handling units
distributed throughout the large distributed buildings and
the main chiller package placed at one central location.
Factors favouring Central Chilled Water Systems:

• Water has a far greater heat capacity than air. The

following is a comparison of these two media for carrying
heat energy at 68°F:
Air Water Specific heat, Btu/lb • °F 0.243 1.0 Density, at
68°F, lb/ft3 0.075 62.4 Heat capacity of fluid at 68°F, Btu/ft3
• °F 0.018 62.4

The table shows, the heat capacity per cubic foot of water is
3466 times greater than that of air. Therefore transporting
heating and cooling energy from a central plant to remote air-
handling units in fan rooms is far more efficient using water
than conditioned air in a large air conditioning project;

• Capacity control in chilled water systems is usually

achieved by modulating the chilled water flow through
multiple cooling coils served from a single chiller without
compromising control on any individual unit.
. Chilled water flow rate can be closely controlled allowing
closer temperature tolerances in space under almost any load
condition. In contrast, direct expansion equipment generally
has a ‘fixed’ off coil temperature during the cooling mode and
it provides either an on/off control or step control;

• Grouping and isolating key operating components in

mechanical room allows maintenance to occur with limited
disruption to building functions;

• Since mechanical room is isolated from the master building

served, the noise is reduced and aesthetic impact is minimal;
• Multiple units applied with chilled water system offer greater
redundancy and flexibility as either of the compressors (main &
standby) can act as standby to any of the air-handling units (main &
standby). In the DX system one compressor is associated with one air-
handling unit cooling coil, hence the flexibility & redundancy of
operation is limited;

• Chilled water systems are the engineered systems that are generally
supplied as the custom built units. These can be fabricated to suit the
designer application and the air delivery rate can be sized irrespective
of the refrigeration capacity. In contrast the DX systems usually
provide fixed 400 CFM per ton of refrigeration;

• Central systems provide opportunity for economies of scale and

results in low capital and operating costs over 100TR;
A central chilled water system using high efficiency water cooled
chillers provide greater efficiency than individual units, but efficiency
and stability of operation of central systems can be compromised when
only a small proportion of space is using air conditioning.
• Central systems are amenable to centralized energy management
systems that if properly managed can reduce building energy
consumption besides providing effective indoor temperature and
humidity control;
• From climate control perspective, the active smoke control and
building pressurization is best accompanied by the central HVAC
system;
• Another benefit of a chilled-water applied system is refrigerant
containment. Having the refrigeration equipment installed in a central
location minimizes the potential for refrigerant leaks, simplifies
refrigerant handling practices, and typically makes it easier to contain
a leak if one does occur.
Concerns about Central Chilled Water Systems:

• As a non-distributed system, failure of any key equipment component

(such as pump or chiller) may affect an entire building. Standby
equipment needs to be perceived during design;

• As system size and sophistication increase, maintenance may become

more difficult and may be available from fewer providers and specialists
may be needed;

• The need to transfer conditioned air or water imposes space and

volume demand on a building. Larger duct sizes, for example may
require an increase in floor-to-floor height and consequent, building
cost;
PART III - FACTORS DETERMINING THE HEAT
REJECTION SYSTEM

There are two prominent types of heat rejection equipment; 1)

Air cooled and 2) water cooled. Selection of heat rejection
equipment has traditionally been a choice between higher energy
consumption of an air cooled solution v/s high water
consumption of a water cooled solution. There is a fine line that
needs to be examined on a case by case basis. The salient
parameters are:

The Capacity of Plant: The air-cooled machines are easy to install

and takes lower space compared to water-cooled machines on
lower sizes. The space requirements for air-cooled machines
however increase significantly for nominal capacities above 200
TR. If the plant is larger than 200 TR and is not packaged, it
should be water cooled as:
 It will provide the best energy result; The capital cost will be
appropriate to the size of plant; Chemical refrigerant will be
minimized.

Availability of Water: The places where water is scarce, every drop of

water must be carefully used in an economically feasible manner. The
water demand in some regions is primarily met by groundwater
abstraction, desalination plants and recycled wastewater. All water
treatment is costly.

Quality of Water: The quality of water does matter. Ozone treatment or

automatic biocide dosage shall be required to limit the growth of
Legionella bacteria associated with water cooled options.

First Costs: Air-cooled condensers have a lower initial cost due to lower
number of components. Unlike water cooled options, air cooled
condensers do not require pumps, auxiliaries and associated piping.
With lesser components the associated civil costs also tend to be low.
Operating Costs:

The kW/ton energy consumption of air-cooled systems is higher

compared to water-cooled machines and for unit capacities exceeding
200TR, water cooled machines consume less energy. Air cooled
condenser requires some potential temperature difference in order to
reject heat, so the refrigeration system must operate at a higher head
pressure and temperature to produce this temperature difference. Air
cooled condensers normally requires between 125°F to 130°F
condensing temperature to reject heat to a 100°F ambient, while a
water cooled condenser can operate at 105°F condensing temperature
and reject its heat to a 95°F water stream. Because air is a poor
conductor of heat, water cooled condensers can operate with a much
lower approach temperature. However, the operation cost of an air-
cooled condenser system on small capacities shall be more economical
because of the lower number of power driven auxiliaries and the zero
water treatment costs.
Maintenance:
Water-cooled systems will always cost more to maintain
due to the constant water treatment requirements and the need for
regular tube cleaning. Water- cooled chillers will generally last longer,
however, particularly in harsh environments such as near oceans where
salt in the air can significantly shorten the life of air-cooled condensers.

Potential for Heat Recovery is easier to obtain and control when using
water cooled condenser because water has a far greater heat capacity than
air. Heated water from the refrigeration cycle can be diverted to heat
other processes and even provide space heating during winter months.
•Flexibility of Control: Water-cooled machines provide better control of
indoor conditions at extreme ambient conditions. The performance of an
air-cooled condenser machine reduces significantly at higher ambient
temperatures and requires considerable over sizing to overcome the
extreme high ambient temperatures. The thermal efficiency of air-cooled
condensers is lower than that of cooling towers.

•Other Governing Criteria: Air-cooled condensers are restricted by

distance separation and the installation height differential between the
evaporator and the condensers. Typically the condensers should not be
more than ~120 ft above or below and not more than ~ 240 feet away
from the chilling machine.

•Provided all above factors are taken into consideration, the following
rules apply:
 For cooling loads below 100–125 tons, the initial
capital and recurring maintenance costs for a water-cooled system are
rarely justified and the chiller(s) shall be air- cooled. Above 200 tons
capacity systems and with the use of rotary compressor chillers, the
water-cooled condensing option becomes justifiable. Note that the
centrifugal chillers are always water cooled due to lower compression
ratio. Between 100 and 200 tons peak cooling load, it becomes a matter
of the owner’s ability to deal with the maintenance requirements of a
cooling tower system and the capital funds available.

We will discuss the various heat rejection methods further in

following section:
METHODS OF HEAT
REJECTION

The five prominent ways of heat

rejection are:

1. Air cooled condensing units

2. Closed circuit coolers

3. Evaporative condensers

4. Cooling Towers

5. Adiabatic condensers
BUILDING SURVEY

This is very important first step to start with any project on air
conditioning load analysis and other designs ( ducting, piping)
This site survey will give following information:

•The correct cooling or heating equipment

•The possibilities of great load reduction with least cost

•The most economical equipment selection and location

•The most efficient air distribution.

Parameters
•Physical plan and section of the area to be conditioned where possible
architects drawings are preferred(soft and hard copies).

•Psychometric conditions of outside and conditioned space by using

ASHRAE handbook, ASHRAE CLIMATIC DATA SOFTWARE, Data
form metrological department.

•Latitude and Longitude of city: the latitude for the city is used in solar
radiation calculation. It has a direct effect on the direction and intensity
of solar radiation. +ve values are used for cities on north of equator and –
ve values are used for cities on south of equator. The longitude for city is
also used for solar radiation calculation. +ve values for west side and –ve
values for east side.
•Elevation of city:

•The elevation for the city is required for air property and psychometric
calculations. Since the property of air value alter with altitude +ve
values indicates the distance above sea level and –ve values defines the
distance below sea level. Latitude, longitude and elevation can be found
by using ASHRAE data book or even Google earth.

•Orientation of building:

• Orientation of building with respect to N/E/S/W

 Common methods of find orientation are sunrise method, compass
method, Google earth
Selection of System as per site conditions:

This includes several types of information like surroundings, space

available, clearance between different types of services.

Application and type of building: office, hospital, factory, industry,

departmental store, machine shop, education institute etc.
Construction materials: material and thickness of walls, roof, ceiling,
floor and partitions and their relative positions in the structure.
Surrounding conditions : Exterior color of the walls and roof, shaded by
adjacent building or sunlight, space vented or unvented, gravity of
forced ventilation surrounding space conditioned or unconditioned temp
offered by adjacent spaces such as furnace boilers room and kitchen, floor
on the ground and basement unconditioned temp like outside and inside
temp difference.
Window: size and location , wood or metal, single or double or triple
glazed glass , type of shading device , dimension of glass,

Door : type, size, frequency of use of doors

People Activity and strength: number of people, duration of occupancy

and nature of activity (like a person in motion or rest)

Lightening: wattage of peak, type, incandescent, fluorescent, recessed,

exposed, if the lights are recessed, the type of air flow over the lights
exhaust, return or supply should be anticipated same time it is required
to estimate the wattage on the basis of watt per square feet, due to lack of
exact information.
Motors: Location , name plate and brake horse powers.
Appliances: Business or kitchen appliances like computer, printer,
projector or Owen, electric rice cooker, coffee maker to estimate type of
heat load sensible or latent.
Using all the these building parameters input file can be prepared to
start designing of the project.

LOAD CALCULATIONS:
•Cooling load: applicable for summer , process is cooling and
dehumidification.
•Heating load: applicable for winter, process in heating and
humidification.

Cooling load calculation:

The room cooling load is a rate at which heat must be removed from the
room air to maintain it at desired temp and humidity
SOURCES OF HEAT:

External sources:
•Heat gain through glass due to conduction.
•Heat gained through glass due to radiation.
•Heat gained through skylight (conduction and radiation)
•Heat gain through wall
•Heat gain through roof
•Heat gained through partition walls and ceiling due to conduction..
•Heat gained though ventilation due to convection
Heat gained through infiltration
Internal sources:

•Heat gained through lightings.

•Heat gain through people.
•Heat gained through appliances.
•Heat gained through miscellaneous factors.

Coefficient of heat transfer: U

Thermal resistance of material: R

R= 1/U

U = 1/ R

U = 1/∑R
•Heat gained through glass: through conduction
Q = UAΔT btu/hr
A – Area of glass in ft square
ΔT – temperature difference = ( tₒ-t₁)

•Through radiation:
For north glass
Q = UAΔH
U = shade coefficient or solar factor (depends on type of glass )
H = enthalpy
ΔH requirements
•Latitude of city 17.45 N
•Month in which month city faces max temp – may
•Orientation of the glass – north
•Timings of max solar radiation – 4 pm
•Heat gained through walls
Q = UAΔT btu/hr
ΔT = difference between max dry bulb temp of outside to min dry bulb of
design temp

•Heat gained through door

Q = UAΔT btu/hr

•Heat gain through roof

Q = UAΔT btu/hr( conduction)
Q = UAΔH( radiation)
HEAT GAINED THROUGH VENTILATION (CONVECTION)

Some outside air is usually brought into conditioned space through

mechanical ventilation equipment(Fresh air handling unit) or exhaust
fan.
In order to maintain indoor air quality for health and comfort reason, the
outside ventilation will an additional part of building cooling loads.
Since the entering air is at outdoor temp and humidity.

Sensible heat equation

Q = 1.1 x CFM x ΔT
1.1 or 1.08 is specific heat of air
CFM = Air ventilation in FT /min
Q= sensible heat gain , ΔT temp difference inside and outside
Latent heat equation

Q = 0.68 x CFMx ΔW
Q= latent heat gain. .68 specific heat of moisture,
ΔW difference between outside and inside humidity ratio.
Ventilation standards.

CARRRIER STANDARDS, ASHRAE STANDARDS 62.1-2004

COMPANY CONSUTLANTS SPECIFICATIONS.

Finding CFM:

•People method: CFM= No of people x CFM per person

•Area method : CFM = area in feet square x ( CFM / feet square)
•Air Change Method: CFM = Volume x No. of Air Change per hour/60
THANK YOU