Learning

When we think
of learning, we
most often think
Principles
of
of the formal
type that occurs
in school.

Learning
Learning, how-
ever, takes place
continuously
every day.
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Four Types of Learning

classical conditioning - making unavoidable

1 physical associations
operant conditioning - learning caused by the
2 consequences of actions we perform
social learning - learning that results from
3 watching other people

4
cognitive approach- learning that emphasizes the
rational and problem-solving thought processes

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Pavlov and
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning can be defined as what
happens when a neutral stimulus evokes a
response that was originally produced by another
stimulus.

Pavlov would later win a Nobel Prize for his

work on the digestive system of dogs.

An illustration of Pavlov’s classic experiment

appears on the next slide.
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Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

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Design of Steps in Classical
Conditioning Experiment

Receives Food Salivates

(UCS) (UCR)

Sight of the Receives Food Salivates

Experimenter (NS) + (UCS) (UCR)

Sight of the Salivates

Experimenter (CS) (CR)

UCS = unconditioned stimulus NS = neutral stimulus

UCR = unconditioned response CS = conditioned stimulus
CR = conditioned response
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Conditional Training:
Albert and Peter

Conditioned fear
experiments such as
Albert’s experience
would never occur
today because of the
existing ethical
standards.
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John Watson
Watson took a a baby named Albert and
conditioned him to be afraid of white furry objects
using Pavlov’s techniques.

A sudden loud Startled and began

noise (UCS) crying (UCR)

A sudden loud Startled and began

Rat (NS) + noise (UCS) crying (UCR)

Rat (CS) Startled and began

crying (CR)
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Mary Cover Jones

Mary Cover Jones used an early form of

desensitization to prove that fears (phobias) could
be unlearned.

Peter, a young boy, had an extreme fear of

rabbits. Jones gave Peter his favorite food
while slowly bringing the rabbit closer and
closer. Eventually Peter no longer panicked
around rabbits.

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Variations Within
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Generalization
A response can be generalized to other like stimuli.

Extinction
If a stimulus is never reinforced, then the response
will go away.

Spontaneous Recovery
After extinction, a response will suddenly reappear.
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B.F. Skinner and
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning can be defined as a behavior that is
learned (or avoided) as a result of its consequence.

Reinforcement is a key
component. If the behavior is
followed by a pleasurable
response, then the behavior
will reoccur. (I tell a joke…
people laugh…I tell the joke
again to a different group of
people.)
A rat in a Skinner Box
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Operant Conditioning Processes
Primary Reinforcement is unlearned and
usually necessary for survival. Food is the best
example of a primary reinforcer.

Secondary Reinforcement is anything that comes to

represent a primary reinforcer such as praise from
a friend or a gold star on a homework assignment.

Punishment weakens a
response by following it
with something
unpleasant.
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Generalization is a behavior
that spreads from one
situation to a similar one. (A
baby will call Daddy “Dada.”
When the baby sees any man,
the baby calls out “Dada.”)

Discrimination is the reverse of generalization.

Some stimuli have pleasant consequences and
some do not. (A baby gradually learns that
only one person responds with a smile when
called “Dada.”)
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Extinction occurs when a response is no longer followed
by reinforcement so that a person will gradually stop
making that response. (Tell a joke. If people do not
laugh, you’re not likely to tell the joke again.)

In shaping, successively closer

versions of a desired response are
reinforced (as in learning to play
tennis).

In chaining, each part of a sequence is reinforced; the

different parts are put together into a whole (as in
learning the steps to a dance).

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 Do you want to stop a
bad habit?
Wear a rubber band
around your wrist.
Every time you engage in
the bad habit, snap the
rubber band!

What conditioning process is

represented by this example?
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Schedules of Reinforcement
Variable Ratio
A person must perform different
(variable) acts before
reinforcement is given. (Children
in a school band selling candy have
to ask every person because they
don’t know who might buy the
candy.)

Fixed Ratio
The number of responses and reinforcement never varies. A
dentist gets paid according to how many cavities are fixed.
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 Variable Interval
The amount of time varies
between reinforcements.
Performance is steady but
sluggish. (A person goes
fishing and is waiting for the
fish to bite.)
Fixed Interval
A set amount of time goes by before the
reinforcement occurs. Performance is irregular
and increases only before the reinforcement. (A
worker gets paid every two weeks.)
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Albert Bandura and
Social Learning
According to Bandura, we imitate the activities
and behaviors of those around us. Between the
stimulus and the response is the “inner person.”

Much social learning is

observational. Children model
their behavior after watching.

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This series of photographs shows children
observing and modeling aggressive behavior.

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 Cognitive Approach

This approach emphasizes abstract and subtle

learning that could not be achieved through
conditioning or social learning alone.

Some learning is not intentional, but occurs

almost accidentally—a situation called latent
learning.

Expectancies are beliefs about our ability to

perform an action and to get the desired
reward. Expectancies affect learning.
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Cognitive Maps

E.C. Tolman argued that animals and people use

cognitive maps to figure out where they are in the
environment. He showed that they use strategies
to analyze and (sometimes) to communicate
information.

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Summary of Main
Topics Covered

Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning
Cognitive Approach

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