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SESSION 2
 THEORIES OF SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
(CONTINUED)
Cognitivist Theory views human beings as having
the innate capacity to develop logical thinking. This
school of thought was influenced by Jean Piaget’s work
where he suggests that logical thinking is the underlying
factor for both linguistic and non-linguistic
development.

The process of association has been used to describe the

means by which the child learns to relate what is said to
particular objects or events in the environment. The
bridge by which certain associations are made is
meaning. The extent and accuracy of the associations
made are said to change in time as the child matures.
 THEORIES OF SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
(CONTINUED)

Cognitivists say that the conditions for learning

language are the same conditions that are necessary
for any kind of learning. The environment provides
the material that the child can work on.

Cognitivists view the role of feedback in the

learning process as important for affective reasons,
but non-influential in terms of modifying or
altering the sequence of development.
COGNITIVIST THEORY
(CONTINUED)
Language Learning as a Cognitive
Process
1. Learning a language involves internal
representations that regulate and guide
performance.
2. Automatic processing activates certain nodes
in memory when appropriate input is present.
Activation is a learned response.
3. Memory is a large collection of nodes.
 COGNITIVIST THEORY
(CONTINUED)
1. Controlled processing is not a learned
response. It is a temporary activation of
nodes in a sequence.
2. Skills are learned and routinized only after
the earlier use of controlled processes have
been used.
3. Learner strategies contain both declarative
knowledge i.e. knowing the ‘what’ of the
language-internalized rules and memorized
chunks of language, and procedural
knowledge i.e. know the ‘how’ of the
language system to employ strategies.
 THEORIES OF SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
(CONTINUED)
Social Interactionist Theory supports the view that the
development of language comes from the early interactions
between infants and caregivers.

Social interactionists stress:

•the importance of a child’s interactions with parents
and other caregivers;
•the importance of “motherese”;
•contributions of context and world knowledge; and
•the importance of goals
 THEORIES OF SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
(CONTINUED)
Glew (1998) claims that learners have to be pushed in
their negotiation of meaning to produce
comprehensible output. The classroom context needs to
provide adequate opportunities for target language use
to allow learners to develop competence in the target
language.
 SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST
THEORY
(CONTINUED)

 Comprehensible output provides opportunities

for contextualized, meaningful use of language.

Social interactionists believe that:

Human language emerged from the social role that
language plays in human interaction;
SOCIAL INTERACTIONIST
THEORY
(CONTINUED)
The environment plays a key role in language
development;

Adults in the child’s linguistic environment are

viewed as instrumental in language acquisition.

Social interactions are the key element in

language processing and input from social
interactions provides a model for negotiation
opportunities.
 KRASHEN’S FIVE
HYPOTHESES FOR SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis claims that we
have two independent ways of developing language
ability:

• Language Acquisition is a subconscious process. It

occurs very naturally in a non-threatening environment.
The research strongly supports the view that both
children and adults can subconsciously acquire
languages.

• Language Learning is what occurs at school in an

academic setting. It is a conscious process. When we
talk about rules and grammar of language, we are
usually talking about learning.
 KRASHEN’S FIVE
HYPOTHESES FOR SECOND
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
The Natural Order Hypothesis claims that we
acquire parts of a language in a predictable order.
Some grammatical items tend to come earlier in
the acquisition than others. For example, the –ing
progressive is acquired fairly early in first language
acquisition, while third person singular –s is
acquired later.
KRASHEN’S FIVE HYPOTHESES
(CONTINUED)
•howTheacquisition
Monitor Hypothesis attempts to explain
and learning are used. Language
is normally produced using our acquired
linguistic competence. Conscious learning has
only one function…as the “Monitor” or
“Editor.” After we produce some language using
the acquired system, we sometimes inspect it
and use our learned system to correct errors.
This can happen internally before we actually
speak or write, or as a self-correction after we
produce the utterance or written text.
KRASHEN’S FIVE HYPOTHESES
(CONTINUED)
•contends
Comprehensible Input Hypothesis
that more comprehensible input results
in more acquisition.

•affective
The Affective Filter Hypothesis claims that
variables do not impact language
acquisition directly, but can prevent input from
reaching what Chomsky called the Language
Acquisition Device. The LAD is the part of the
brain that is responsible for language acquisition.
 CUMMIN’S SECOND
LANGUAGE FRAMEWORK
Cummins makes a distinction between social language
and
academic language.

1. Social language refers to the everyday conversational

language which is supported by the use of illustrations,
realia, emonstrations, etc. (Context Embedded). Studies
show that language learners acquire social language in
approximately two years.
Social language deals with the here-and-now
language, therefore second language learners tend to
acquire it faster.
 CUMMIN’S SECOND
LANGUAGE FRAMEWORK
2. Academic language is the language of school tasks
which is more abstract and decontextualized (Context
Reduced).

Some second language learners who develop fluent

spoken English have difficulties in reading and
writing because they may be at different levels of
proficiency while they are moving from social
language (BICS) to academic language (CALP). It
takes between five to seven years for second language
learners to acquire academic language.
 CONTEXT-EMBEDDED
COGNITIVELY
UNDEMANDING SAMPLE
TASKS
Context-Embedded/Cognitively Undemanding tasks are
supported by the use of pictures, illustrations,
demonstrations, connections with life experiences, etc.
Language learning is non-threatening and learners are
able to depend on environmental cues for assistance.
 CONTEXT-EMBEDDED
COGNITIVELY
UNDEMANDING SAMPLE
TASKS
Some sample tasks include:
• developing survival vocabulary;
• following demonstrated directions;
• playing simple games;
• engaging in face-to-face interactions; and
• participating in art, music and physical
education activities.
 CONTEXT-EMBEDDED
COGNITIVELY DEMANDING
SAMPLE TASKS
Context-Embedded/Cognitively
Demanding tasks are those activities
that provide some environmental cues,
but are more cognitively demanding.
Language learners are exposed to more
complex tasks that include some
context-embedded cues.
 CONTEXT-EMBEDDED
COGNITIVELY DEMANDING
SAMPLE TASKS
Examples of these tasks include:
• participating in hands-on science and
mathematics activities;
• making maps, models, charts, and graphs;
• solving math computational problems;
• making brief oral presentations;
• understanding academic presentations through
the use of visuals, demonstrations, active
participation, realia, etc.; and
• writing academic reports with the aid of outlines,
structures, etc.
 CONTEXT-REDUCED
COGNITIVELY UNDEMANDING
SAMPLE TASKS
Context-Reduced/Cognitively Undemanding tasks
are those activities that are simple to carry out but do
not contain any environmental cues to assist the
language learner.
Some sample tasks include:
• engaging in telephone conversations;
• reading for personal purposes; and
• writing for personal purposes: notes,
• lists, sketches, etc.
 CONTEXT-REDUCED
COGNITIVELY DEMANDING
SAMPLE TASKS
Context-Reduced/Cognitively Demanding tasks are those
that require more academically demanding language, are
more abstract and are decontextualized.

Some examples of these tasks include:

• understanding academic presentations without visuals or
demonstrations (lectures);
• making formal oral presentations;
• solving math word problems without illustrations;
• writing compositions, essays, and research reports in
content areas;
• reading for information in content areas; and
• taking standardized achievement tests.
 COMPONENTS OF
COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE

1) grammatical competence
2) sociolinguistic competence
3) discourse competence
4) strategic competence
 COMPONENTS OF
COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE

Grammatical competence means understanding the

skills and knowledge necessary to speak and write
accurately. Grammatical competence includes:
1) vocabulary
2) word formation
3) meaning
4) sentence formation
5) pronunciation
6) spelling
 COMPONENTS OF
COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE

Sociolinguistic competence involves knowing how to

produce and understand the language in different
sociolinguistic contexts, taking into consideration
such factors as:
1) the status of the participants
2) the purpose of the interaction; and
3) the norms or conventions of the interaction.