Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Nuclear Interactions and Applications
Nuclear Interactions and Applications
Nuclear Interactions and Applications
Ernest Lawrence, upon hearing the first self-sustaining chain reaction would be
developed at the University of Chicago in 1942 rather than at his University of
California, Berkeley lab said, “You’ll never get the chain reaction going here. The
whole tempo of the University of Chicago is too slow.”
X(x, y)Y
2
3 Important Technological Advances
The high-voltage multiplier circuit was
developed in 1932 by J.D. Cockcroft and
E.T.S. Walton. This compact circuit
produces high-voltage, low-current pulses.
High voltage is required to accelerate
charged particles.
The Van de Graaff electrostatic accelerator
was developed in 1931. It produces a high
voltage from the friction between two
different materials.
4
Cross Sections
The probability of a particular nuclear reaction occurring is determined by
measuring the cross section σ. It is determined by measuring the number of
particles produced in a given nuclear reaction.
5
13.2: Reaction Kinematics
Consider the reaction: x + X → y + Y. For a target X at rest, conservation of
energy is
Rearranging this by separating mass from energy yields a quantity similar to the
disintegration energy:
The difference between the final and initial kinetic energies is the difference
between the initial and final mass energies. This is called the Q value.
The energy released when Q > 0 is
from an exoergic (or exothermic)
reaction. When Q < 0, kinetic energy
is converted to mass energy in an
endoergic (or endothermic) reaction.
Collisions in this reaction are inelastic.
Elastic collisions have Q = 0.
Threshold energy for an endoergic
reaction:
6
13.3: Reaction Mechanisms
The Compound Nucleus
For low energies of E < 10 MeV, the Coulomb force dominates the reaction. This
is described by the compound nucleus.
The compound nucleus is a composite of the projectile and target nuclei, usually
in a high state of excitation.
The kinetic energy available in the center of mass frame
can excite the compound nucleus to even higher excitation energies than that
from just the masses.
Once formed, the compound nucleus may exist for a relatively long time
compared to the time taken by the bombarding particle to cross the nucleus. This
latter time is sometimes referred to as the nuclear time scale tN.
When the compound nucleus finally does decay from its highly excited state, it
decays into all the possible exit channels according to statistical rules consistent
with the conservation laws.
7
Resonances
8
Resonances
Because neutrons have zero net
charge, they interact more easily with
nuclei at low energies than do
charged particles, because of the
Coulomb barrier. This process is
called neutron activation and the
reaction is called neutron radioactive
transfer.
The average neutron capture cross
section (at energies up to about 100
keV) varies empirically as 1/v, where
v is the neutron’s velocity. The 1/v
dependence can be explained in
terms of the time the neutron spends
near the nucleus.
9
Direct Reactions
For large bombarding energies, the bombarding particle spends
less time within the range of the nuclear force. Stripping one or
more nucleons off the projectile or picking up one or more
nucleons from the target becomes more probable.
The projectile could also knock out energetic nucleons from the
target nucleus.
These are called direct reactions.
The chief advantage of direct reactions is that the final residual
nucleus may be left in any one of many low-lying excited states.
By using different direct reactions, the nuclear excited states can
be studied in a variety of ways to learn more about nuclear
structure.
10
13.4: Fission
In fission a nucleus separates into two fission
fragments. As we will show, one fragment is
typically somewhat larger than the other.
Fission occurs for heavy nuclei because of
the increased Coulomb forces between the
protons.
We can understand fission by using the
semi-empirical mass formula based on the
liquid drop model. For a spherical nucleus of
with mass number A ~ 240, the attractive
short-range nuclear forces offset the
Coulomb repulsive term. As a nucleus
becomes non-spherical, the surface energy
is increased, and the effect of the short-
range nuclear interactions is reduced. Spontaneous fission can
Nucleons on the surface are not surrounded occur for nuclei with
by other nucleons, and the unsaturated
nuclear force reduces the overall nuclear
attraction. For a certain deformation, a critical
energy is reached, and the fission barrier is
overcome.
11
Induced Fission
Fission may also be induced by a nuclear reaction. A neutron absorbed by
a heavy nucleus forms a highly excited compound nucleus that may
quickly fission.
An induced fission example is
The fission products have a ratio of N/Z much too high to be stable for
their A value.
There are many possibilities for the Z and A of the fission products.
Symmetric fission (products with equal Z) is possible, but the most
probable fission is asymmetric (one mass larger than the other).
12
Thermal Neutron Fission
Fission fragments are highly unstable because
they are so neutron rich.
Prompt neutrons are emitted simultaneously
with the fissioning process. Even after prompt
neutrons are released, the fission fragments
undergo beta decay, releasing more energy.
Most of the ~200 MeV released in fission goes
to the kinetic energy of the fission products, but
the neutrons, beta particles, neutrinos, and
gamma rays typically carry away 30–40 MeV of
the kinetic energy.
13
Chain Reactions
Because several neutrons are produced in
fission, these neutrons may subsequently
produce other fissions. This is the basis of the
self-sustaining chain reaction.
If slightly more than one neutron, on the
average, results in another fission, the chain
reaction becomes critical.
A sufficient amount of mass is required for a
neutron to be absorbed, called the critical mass.
If less than one neutron, on the average,
produces another fission, the reaction is
subcritical.
If more than one neutron, on the average,
produces another fission, the reaction is
supercritical.
An atomic bomb is an extreme example of a
supercritical fission chain reaction.
14
Chain Reactions
A critical-mass fission reaction can be controlled by absorbing
neutrons. A self-sustaining controlled fission process requires
that not all the neutrons are prompt. Some of the neutrons are
delayed by several seconds and are emitted by daughter
nuclides. These delayed neutrons allow the control of the
nuclear reactor.
15
13.5: Fission Reactors
Several components are important
for a controlled nuclear reactor:
1) Fissionable fuel
2) Moderator to slow down neutrons
3) Control rods for safety and to
control criticality of reactor
4) Reflector to surround moderator
and fuel in order to contain
neutrons and thereby improve
efficiency
5) Reactor vessel and radiation shield
6) Energy transfer systems if
commercial power is desired
16
Core Components
Fission neutrons typically have 1–2 MeV of kinetic energy, and because
the fission cross section increases as 1/v at low energies, slowing down
the neutrons helps to increase the chance of producing another fission.
A moderator is used to elastically scatter the high-energy neutrons and
thus reduce their energies. A neutron loses the most energy in a single
collision with a light stationary particle. Hydrogen (in water), carbon
(graphite), and beryllium are all good moderators.
The simplest method to reduce the loss of neutrons escaping from the
fissionable fuel is to make the fuel zone larger. The fuel elements are
normally placed in regular arrays within the moderator.
17
Core Components
The delayed neutrons produced
in fission allow the mechanical
movement of the rods to control
the fission reaction. A “fail-safe”
system automatically drops the
control rods into the reactor in
an emergency shutdown.
If the fuel and moderator are
surrounded by a material with a
very low neutron capture cross
section, there is a reasonable
chance that after one or even
many scatterings, the neutron
will be backscattered or
“reflected” back into the fuel
area. Water is often used both
as moderator and reflector.
18
Energy Transfer
The most common method is to pass hot
water heated by the reactor through some
form of heat exchanger.
In boiling water reactors (BWRs) the
moderating water turns into steam, which
drives a turbine producing electricity.
In pressurized water reactors (PWRs) the
moderating water is under high pressure and
circulates from the reactor to an external
heat exchanger where it produces steam,
which drives a turbine.
Boiling water reactors are inherently simpler
than pressurized water reactors. However,
the possibility that the steam driving the
turbine may become radioactive is greater
with the BWR. The two-step process of the
PWR helps to isolate the power generation
system from possible radioactive
contamination.
19
Types of Reactors
Power reactors produce commercial electricity.
Research reactors are operated to produce high
neutron fluxes for neutron-scattering experiments.
Heat production reactors supply heat in some cold
countries.
Some reactors are designed to produce radioisotopes.
Several training reactors are located on college
campuses.
20
Nuclear Reactor Problems
The danger of a serious accident in which radioactive elements are
released into the atmosphere or groundwater is of great concern to
the general public.
Thermal pollution both in the atmosphere and in lakes and rivers
used for cooling may be a significant ecological problem.
A more serious problem is the safe disposal of the radioactive wastes
produced in the fissioning process, because some fission fragments
have a half-life of thousands of years.
Two widely publicized accidents at nuclear reactor facilities—one at
Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania in 1979, the other at Chernobyl in
Ukraine in 1986—have significantly dampened the general public’s
support for nuclear reactors.
Large expansion of nuclear power can succeed only if four critical
problems are overcome: lower costs, improved safety, better nuclear
waste management, and lower proliferation risk.
21
Breeder Reactors
A more advanced kind of reactor is the breeder reactor, which
produces more fissionable fuel than it consumes.
The chain reaction is:
23
Formation of Elements
The proton-proton chain includes a series of reactions that
eventually converts four protons into an alpha particle.
24
Formation of Elements
As the reaction proceeds, however, the temperature increases, and
eventually 12C nuclei are formed by a process that converts three 4He
into 12C.
Another cycle due to carbon is also able to produce 4He. The series of
reactions responsible for the carbon or CNO cycle are
Proton-proton and CNO cycles are the only nuclear reactions that can
supply the energy in stars.
25
Hydrostatic Equilibrium
A hydrostatic equilibrium exists in the sun between the gravitational
attraction tending to contract a star and a gas pressure pushing out
due to all the particles.
As the lighter nuclides are “burned up” to produce the heavier
nuclides, the gravitational attraction succeeds in contracting the
star’s mass into a smaller volume and the temperature increases. A
higher temperature allows the nuclides with higher Z to fuse.
This process continues in a star until a large part of the star’s mass
is converted to iron. The star then collapses under its own
gravitational attraction to become, depending on its mass, a white
dwarf star, neutron star, or black hole. It may even undergo a
supernova explosion.
26
Nuclear Fusion on Earth
Among the several possible fusion reactions, three of the
simplest involve the three isotopes of hydrogen.
27
Fusion Product
The product of the plasma density n and the containment time τ must
have a minimum value at a sufficiently high temperature in order to
initiate fusion and produce as much energy as it consumes. The
minimum value is
This relation is called the Lawson criterion after the British physicist
J. D. Lawson who first derived it in 1957. A triple product of nτT
called the fusion product is sometimes used (where T is the ion
temperature).
The factor Q is used to represent the ratio of the power produced in
the fusion reaction to the power required to produce the fusion
(heat). This Q factor is not to be confused with the Q value.
The breakeven point is Q = 1, and ignition occurs for Q >> 1. For
controlled fusion produced in the laboratory, temperatures on the
order of 20 keV are satisfactory.
28
Controlled Thermonuclear Reactions
Because of the large amount of energy produced and the relatively small Coulomb barrier, the
first fusion reaction will most likely be the D + T reaction. The tritium will be derived from two
possible reactions:
The problem of controlled fusion involves significant scientific and engineering difficulties. The
two major schemes to control thermonuclear reactions are magnetic confinement fusion (MCF)
and inertial confinement fusion (ICF).
Magnetic confinement of plasma is done in a tokomak, which has many confinement boundaries.
Heating of the plasma to sufficiently high temperatures begins with the resistive heating from the
electric current flowing in the plasma. There are two other schemes to add additional heat: (1)
injection of high-energy (40–120 keV) neutral (so they pass through the magnetic field) fuel
atoms that interact with the plasma, and (2) radio-frequency (RF) induction heating of the plasma
(similar to a microwave oven).
29
Inertial Confinement
The concept of inertial confinement fusion is to use an intense high-
powered beam of heavy ions or light (laser) called a driver to implode a
pea-sized target (a few mm in diameter) composed of D + T to a density
and temperature high enough to cause fusion ignition.
The National Ignition Facility at
Livermore will use 192 lasers to
create a thermonuclear burn for
research purposes.
Sandia National Laboratories has
used a device called a Z-pinch
that uses a huge jolt of current to
create a powerful magnetic field
that squeezes ions into implosion
and heats the plasma. Sandia
has proposed an upgrade that
may be a serious contender in the
fusion race.
30
13.7: Special Applications
A specific isotope of a radioactive element is called a
radioisotope.
Radioisotopes are produced for useful purposes by different
methods:
1) By particle accelerators as reaction products
2) In nuclear reactors as fission fragments or decay
products
3) In nuclear reactors using neutron activation
An important area of applications is the search for a very small
concentration of a particular element, called a trace element.
Trace elements are used in detecting minute quantities of trace
elements for forensic science and environmental purposes.
31
Medicine
Over 1100 radioisotopes are
available for clinical use.
Radioisotopes are used in
tomography, a technique for
displaying images of practically
any part of the body to look for
abnormal physical shapes or
for testing functional
characteristics of organs. By
using detectors (either
surrounding the body or
rotating around the body)
together with computers, three-
dimensional images of the body
can be obtained.
They use single-photon
emission computed
tomography, positron emission
tomography, and magnetic
resonance imaging.
32
Archaeology
Investigators can now measure a large number of trace elements in
many ancient specimens and then compare the results with the
concentrations of components having the same origin.
Radioactive dating indicates that humans had a settlement near
Clovis, New Mexico 12,000 years ago. Several claims have surfaced
in the past few years, especially from South America, that dispute
this earliest finding, but no conclusive proof has been confirmed.
The Chauvet Cave, discovered in France in 1995, is one of the most
important archaeological finds in decades. More than 300 paintings
and engravings and many traces of human activity, including
hearths, Flintstones, and footprints, were found. These works are
believed, from 14C radioactive dating, to be from the Paleolithic era,
some 32,000 years ago.
33
Art
Neutron activation is a nondestructive technique that is
becoming more widely used to examine oil paintings. A
thermal neutron beam from a nuclear reactor is spread
broadly and evenly over the painting. Several elements
within the painting become radioactive. X-ray films
sensitive to beta emissions from the radioactive nuclei
are subsequently placed next to the painting for varying
lengths of time. This method is called an autoradiograph.
34
Crime Detection
The examination of gunshots by measuring trace
amounts of barium and antimony from the gunpowder
has proven to be 100 to 1000 times more sensitive than
looking for the residue itself.
35
Mining and Oil
Geologists and petroleum engineers use radioactive sources routinely to
search for oil and gas. A source and detector are inserted down an
exploratory drill hole to examine the material at different depths. Neutron
sources called PuBe (plutonium and beryllium) or AmBe (americium and
beryllium) are particularly useful.
36
Materials
Natural silicon consists of 3.1% of the isotope 30Si, which
undergoes the reaction
37
Small Power Systems
Alpha-emitting radioactive sources have been used
as power sources in heart pacemakers.
Smoke detectors use 241Am sources of alpha
particles as current generators. The scattering of the
alpha particles by the smoke particles reduces the
current flowing to a sensitive solid-state device,
which results in an alarm.
Spacecraft have been powered by radioisotope
generators (RTGs) since the early 1960s.
38
New Elements
No transuranic elements—those with atomic number greater than Z=
92 (uranium)—are found in nature because of their short half-lives.
39
40
Believing that MOOCs improve
the learning process is akin to
wishing that incessant texting
and tweeting could produce the
next Tennessee Williams.
41
Nuclear weapons costs detailed
David Kramer
February 2014, Physics Today
© 2014 American Institute of Physics
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/PT.3.2274
$109
42