Nuclear

Chemistry
The Nucleus

 Remember that the nucleus is comprised of the two

nucleons, protons and neutrons.
 The number of protons is the atomic number.
 The number of protons and neutrons together is
effectively the mass of the atom.
Isotopes

 Not all atoms of the same element have

the same mass due to different numbers of
neutrons in those atoms.
 There are three naturally occurring
isotopes of uranium:
 Uranium-234 (most stable)
 Uranium-235
 Uranium-238
ISOTOPES
 Many elements occur in nature as mixtures of
isotopes. The atomic weight of such an element is
the weighted average of the masses of its isotope.
 Naturally occuring Isotopic Abundances of U
Element Isotope % NA Mass (amu)
Uranium U
234 0.0055 234.0409
235U 0.720 235.0439
238U 99.2745 238.0508
Sample Problem
 The element Eu exists in nature as two
isotopes. 151Eu has a mass of 150.9196 amu,
and 153Eu has a mass of 151.96 amu. The
average atomic mass of europium is 151.46
amu. Calculate the relative abundances of
the two europium isotopes.

 48% 151Eu and 52 % 153Eu

Radioactivity

 some nuclides of an element are

unstable, or radioactive.
 We refer to these as radionuclides.
 There are several ways radionuclides can
decay into a different nuclide.
Types of Radioactive Decay
Alpha Decay

Loss of an -particle (a helium nucleus)

4
2 He
238 234 4
92 U 
90 Th+ He
2
Types of Radioactive Decay

Beta Decay

Loss of a -particle (a high energy electron)

0

0
−1 or −1 e
131 131 0
53 I 
54 Xe + −1 e
Types of Radioactive Decay

Positron Emission

Loss of a positron (a particle that has the

same mass as but opposite charge than an
electron)
0
1 e
11 11 0
6 C 
5 B + 1 e
Types of Radioactive Decay

Gamma Ray

A gamma ray,or γ ray = high – energy

photon. γ ray production accompanies
nuclear decays

0
0 
238
U92 ==234Th90 + 4He2 + 2 0γ0
Types of Radioactive Decay

Electron Capture (K-Capture)

 Addition of an electron to a proton in the

nucleus
 As a result, a proton is transformed into a neutron.
1 0 1
1 p + −1 e 
0 n
Electron is captured by the nucleus
201
Hg 80 + oe-1 === Au79
201
+ 0γ0
Sample Problem
Neutron-Proton Ratios
 Any element with more than
one proton (i.e., anything other
than hydrogen) will have
repulsions between the
protons in the nucleus.
 A strong nuclear force helps
keep the nucleus from flying
apart.
 Neutrons play a key role
stabilizing the nucleus.
 Therefore, the ratio of neutrons
to protons is an important
factor.
Neutron-Proton Ratios

For smaller nuclei (Z

 20) stable nuclei
have a neutron-to-
proton ratio close
to 1:1.
Neutron-Proton Ratios

As nuclei get larger,

it takes a greater
number of
neutrons to
stabilize the
nucleus.
Stable Nuclei

The shaded region in

the figure shows what
nuclides would be
stable, the so-called
belt of stability.
Stable Nuclei
 Nuclei above this belt
have too many
neutrons.
 They tend to decay by
emitting beta particles.
 Stable Nuclei
 Nuclei below the belt have
too many protons.
protons
 They tend to become more
stable by positron emission
or electron capture.
Stable Nuclei
 There are no stable nuclei with an atomic
number greater than 83.
 These nuclei tend to decay by alpha
emission.
Radioactive Series
 Large radioactive nuclei
234
U 92 cannot stabilize by
undergoing only one
nuclear transformation.
 They undergo a series of
decays until they form a
stable nuclide (often a
nuclide of lead).
210
Po 84

206
Pb 82
Some Trends
Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, or 82 protons or
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 neutrons
tend to be more stable than nuclides with a different
number of nucleons.

Nuclei with an even

number of protons and
neutrons tend to be more
stable than nuclides that
have odd numbers of these
nucleons.
Sample Problem
 Uranium -235 undergoes a series of α –
particle and β –particle productions to end –
up as lead -207. How many α- particles and β
–particles are produced in the complete
decay series?
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
 Nuclear decay is a first-order process. The kinetics of
such a process obey this equation:

Nt
ln = -kt
N0
 The half-life of such a process is:
0.693
= t1/2
k
• Comparing the amount of a radioactive nuclide present at
a given point in time (Nt) with the amount normally
present,(No) one can find the age of an object.
Measuring Radioactivity
 One can use a device like this Geiger counter to
measure the amount of activity present in a
radioactive sample.
 The ionizing radiation creates ions, which conduct
a current that is detected by the instrument.
Kinetics of Radioactive decay
 Dating
Rocks and Inorganic Materials

-the half-life for Uranium -238 to decay to lead -206 is

4.5 x 109 years.
238
U92 ====== 206Pb82 + 8 4He2 + 6 oe-1 t1/2 = 4.5 x109 years

-By analyzing rocks to determine the relative amounts of

U - 238 and Pb - 206 present, one can determine the age of
rocks – the amount of time since the rock solidified.
Dating
 Age of Organic Material : Carbon Dating
Carbon -14 is used to date organic materials

Carbon-14 is produced by neutron capture in the upper atmosphere:

N7 + 1no = 14C6 + 1H1

14

- the ratio of 14C/12C in the atmosphere is constant for about 50,000 years.
Once the organism dies, the carbon content decreases because of its
radioactive decay.

C6 ====14N7 + oe-1
14 t1/2 = 5730 years

Radiocarbon dating cannot be used to date objects older than 50,000

years because the radioactivity for this length of time is too low to be measured
accurately.
Sample Problem ( 14C dating)
The remnants of an ancient fire in a cave in
Africa showed a14C6 decay rate of 3.1 counts
per minute per gram of carbon. Assuming
that the decay rate of 14C6 in freshly cut wood
is 13.6 counts per minute per gram of
Carbon. Calculate the age of remnants. The
half-life of 14C6 is 5730 years.

Answer: t =12,000 years

The campfire in the cave occurred about
Sample Problem
(Dating by Radioactivity)
A rock containing 238U92 and 206Pb82 was examined to
determine its approximate age. Analysis showed the
ratio of 206Pb82 to 238U92 atoms to be 0.115. Assuming
that no lead was originally present, that all the 206Pb82
formed over the years has remained in the rock, and
that the number of nuclides in intermediate stages of
decay between 238U92 and 206Pb82 is negligible, calculate
the age of the rock. The half life of 238U92 is 4.5 x109
years.
Assuming that each 208Pb82 nuclide present must have
come from decay of 238U92 atom.

Answer: t = 7.1 x10 8 years

Energy in Nuclear Reactions
 There is a tremendous amount of energy
stored in nuclei.
 Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2,
relates directly to the calculation of this
energy.
 In chemical reactions the amount of mass
converted to energy is minimal.
 However, these energies are many
thousands of times greater in nuclear
reactions.
 Energy in Nuclear Reactions
Mass defect: the difference between the mass of an atom and
the sum of the masses of its protons, neutrons and electrons
-mass of nuclei always less than the sum of masses of nucleons
Nuclear Binding energy: energy required to break up a nucleus
into its component nucleons.

For example, the mass change for the decay of 1 mol of uranium-238
is −0.0046 g.
The change in energy, E, is then
E = (m) c2
E = (−4.6  10−6 kg)(3.00  108 m/s)2
E = −4.1  1011 J
Fundamental Particles of matter
 Particle Mass Charge
 Electron (e-) 0.000548 amu 1-
 Proton (p+) 1.0073 amu 1+
 Neutron (no) 1.0087 none
Sample Problem
 Calculate the change in energy if 1 mole of
16O nuclei was formed from neutrons and
8
protons.
 81no + 8 1H1 ==== 16O8
 Mass of n = 1.67493 x10 -24g
 Mass of H = 1.67262 x 10-24g
 Mass of O = 2.65535 x10-23g
Solution
 Mass of (81no + 8 1H1) = 2.67804 x 10-23g
 Mass of 16O8 - Mass of (81no + 8 1H1) =
-2.269 x10-25g
 Δm = -2.269 X10-25g/ nucleus)(6.022
x1023nuclei /mole
= -0.1366 g/mol
ΔE = Δmc2 = - 1.23 x1013J/mol (exothermic)
Thermodynamic Stability of
the Nucleus
 The thermodynamic stability of a particular nucleus is normally
represented as energy released per nucleons.

 ΔEper16O8 nucleus = -1.23 x 1013J/mol

-----------------------
6.02 x1023 nuclei/mol
 =-2.04 x10-11J/nucleus
 1MeV =1.60 x10-13J
 = -1.28 x102 MeV/nucleus
 ΔEper16O8 nucleons = -1.28 x102MeV/nucleus
----------------------------------------
16 nucleons/nucleus
= -7.98 MeV/nucleon
This means that 7.98 MeV of energy per nucleon will be released if 16O8 were
formed from neutrons and protons
Sample Problem
5.)Calculate the binding energy per nucleon for the 42He nucleus.
4 He = 4.0026 amu, 1 H = 1.0078 amu and 1 n = 1.0087 amu
2 1 0
4 He === 21 H + 2 1 n
2 1 0

Δm = - 0.0304amu/nucleus (1.66 x 10-27 kg/amu)

ΔE = -4.54 x 10-12 J/nucleus
(4.54 x10-12J would be required to decompose the nucleus inot the
constituent neutrons and protons.)

BE = 1.44 x 10-12 J/nucleon

1MeV = 1.60 x 10-13J
= 7.13 MeV/nucleon
Nuclear Fission and Fusion
 Fusion = combining two light nuclie to form a
heavier more stable nucleus
3He
2 +
1H
1 ===
4He + 0e 1
2

 Fission = splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei

with smaller mass numbers
1n
o +
235U == 141Ba
56 +
62Kr
36 + 3 no
1

 Both fission and fusion produce more stable

nuclides and are thus exothermic.
exothermic
Nuclear Fission
 How does one tap all that energy?
 Nuclear fission is the type of reaction carried
out in nuclear reactors.
Nuclear Fission

 Bombardment of the radioactive nuclide with a

neutron starts the process.
 Neutrons released in the transmutation strike
other nuclei, causing their decay and the
production of more neutrons.
 This process continues in what we call a nuclear
chain reaction.
Nuclear Fission

 If there are not enough radioactive nuclides in the

path of the ejected neutrons, the chain reaction will
die out.
 Therefore, there must be a certain minimum amount
of fissionable material present for the chain
reaction to be sustained: Critical Mass.
Nuclear Reactors
In nuclear reactors the heat generated by the
reaction is used to produce steam that turns
a turbine connected to a generator.
Nuclear Reactors
 The reaction is kept in check
by the use of control rods.

 These block the paths of

some neutrons, keeping
the system from reaching a
dangerous supercritical
mass.
Fission Energy
- The energy released is or 8.4 x 107kJ/ g of 235U92 which
is about equal to the explosion of 30 metric tons of (3 x
104Kg) of TNT.
 Nuclear Fusion
 Fusion would be a superior
method of generating power.
 The good news is that the
products of the reaction are
not radioactive.

 The bad news is that in order to achieve fusion, the material must
be in the plasma state at several million kelvins.

 Tokamak apparati like the one shown at the right show promise for
carrying out these reactions.

 They use magnetic fields to heat the material.

Nuclear Waste
Biological Effects of exposure to a
single dose of ionizing Radiation