BRITTON HIGH SCHOOL

CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER 12: BONDING

MR. GRACE
CHAPTER 12 GOALS

• To describe a bond between two atoms in terms of electronegativity

• To understand how valence electrons are arranged in the bonds of molecules
• To draw a dot diagram of a molecule or polyatomic ion
• To understand molecular geometry in terms of bonds and lone pairs
• To identify a polar molecule by its asymmetry and electronegativity values
• To explain 5 interparticle forces
LESSON 1 – ELECTRONEGATIVITY AND BOND
TYPE
LESSON 1 – OBJECTIVES

• Explain how electrons are involved in chemical bonds

• Describe three types of chemical bonds
• Define electronegativity
• Predict the bond type between two atoms using electronegativity values
Hydrogen atoms
Hydrogen atoms
Hydrogen atoms
BONDS

• In the previous example, the two atoms are identical.

• Therefore, electrons are evenly and equally shared

• This is not always the case

• Two main types of bonds

• Covalent bonds
• Ionic bonds
BONDS

• Covalent bond
• A chemical bond in which electrons are shared between two atoms
• What holds molecular compounds together
• Ionic bond
• A chemical bond that results when electrons are transferred from one
atom to another
• This is what creates our cation and anion
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY

• How do we tell what type of bond is formed??

• By comparing the electronegativity values of atoms
• The ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond
• Each element has one
• It has no “Units”
• The atom with the higher electronegativity attracts electrons more strongly
• Elements towards the top and right of the periodic table have a high electronegativity
• Elements towards the bottom and left have low electronegativity’s
• Similar in pattern to electron affinity (Chapter 11) (the amount of energy released
when an atom gains an electron)
BOND TYPES

• A few of you have asked, “Mr. Grace, how do you

know what kind of bond is going to be made?
Covalent or ionic?”

• We can now predict what type of bond will form.

 BOND TYPES

• Little or no difference in the

electronegativity
• Bonding is equally shared
• Take H2 for example:
• Both atoms has an electronegativity of
2.1
• 2.1 – 2.1 = 0
• Bonding electrons are attracted to both
atoms with the same force
• ∴ equally shared in a covalent bond
 BOND TYPES

• When the electrons are shared equally or somewhat

equally, we know this is a covalent bond.
• However, it is more correctly termed a nonpolar covalent
bond
• A chemical bond in which electrons are equally
shared
• This is normally true for an electronegativity from 0 – 0.3

• What happens after 0.3???

 BOND TYPES

• As electronegativity difference increases beyond 0.4, the

covalent bond becomes more polar.
• polar covalent bond
• A chemical bond in which electrons are NOT equally
shared
• They will spend more time near the more electronegative
atom
• This is normally true for an electronegativity from 0.4 – 1.7
• What happens after 1.7???
 BOND TYPES

• As electronegativity difference increases beyond

1.7, the bond becomes ionic
• Take cesium fluoride (CsF) for example:
• Cesium = 0.7
• Fluorine = 4.0
• 4.0 - 0.7 = 3.3*
• Largest difference there is. Electrons not shared
at all
• ∴ completely ionic bond

* - When calculating electronegativity , always subtract the smaller number from the larger number
 EX 1: PREDICT THE TYPE OF BOND IN THE
COMPOUND, HCl

• Hydrogen’s electronegativity = 2.1 3.0 −2.1=0.9

 

• Chlorine’s electronegativity = 3.0

• Therefore, this should form a polar covalent bond.

 EX 2: PREDICT THE TYPE OF BOND IN THE
COMPOUND, NaCl

• Sodium’s electronegativity = 0.9

• Chlorine’s electronegativity = 3.0 3.0 −0.9=2.1
 

• This should form a ionic bond.

 FOR COMPOUNDS WITH MORE THAN TWO
ATOMS??

• You are still just finding the electronegativity difference between two atoms,
even though there may be multiple.
 PREDICTING BOND TYPES

• Ex 3: Predict the type of bond in the compound, CCl4

• Carbon’s electronegativity = 2.5 3.0 −2.5=0.5

 

• Chlorine’s electronegativity = 3.0

• The bond type is polar covalent.

• Chlorine7 valence electrons
• Carbon 4 valence electrons
IF YOU DON’T HAVE VALUES GIVEN?

• You can still predict the bond type for two atoms using these guidelines:
• Elements that are diatomic or polyatomic, such as 0 2 or P4, have nonpolar
covalent bonds.
• Two nonmetals usually form a polar covalent bond.
• CO2 is an example.
• A metal and a nonmetal usually form an ionic bond.
• NaC1 is an example.
• Once you know the type of bonding in a compound, you can begin to
understand its properties.
LESSON 2 – DOT DIAGRAMS OF MOLECULES
LESSON 2 – OBJECTIVES

• List four rules for drawing dot diagrams of compounds

• Draw a dot diagram for a simple molecule
• Describe single, double, and triple bonds
• Draw a dot diagram for a polyatomic ion
DOT DIAGRAMS OF MOLECULES

• Bonds are broken and formed during chemical reactions

• Valence electrons are the electrons involved in bonds
• In Chapter 10 you learned how to draw dot diagrams, which shows an atom’s valence
electrons
• You can also draw a dot diagram for a compound as well.

• But, there are rules:

 4 RULES

• Rule 1 – atoms tend to transfer or share electrons to obtain 8 electron in their outer energy level. Except
for the smallest atoms (H, He, Li, Be, and B), a full valence level is 8 electron, or an octet. This is the
octet rule. It applies to both ionic and covalent compounds
• Rule 2 – the number of dots in the diagram of a compound equals the sum of the valence electrons for
each atom in the compound
• Rule 3 – a covalent bond consists of 2, 4, or 6 shared electrons . In a single bond, 2 electrons (one pair)
are shared. In a double bond, 4 electrons (two pairs) are shared. In a triple bond, 6 electrons (three
pairs) are shared
• Rule 4 – in an ionic bond, one atom or group of atoms gains enough electrons to fill its valence level. It
becomes the anion. The other atom or group of atoms loses electrons and becomes the cation. The
number of electrons transferred can be 1, 2, 3, 4, or, rarely, 5.
DOT DIAGRAMS OF SIMPLE MOLECULES

• Let’s take a look at diatomic chlorine, Cl2. It is a simple molecule with a nonpolar
covalent bond. Each Cl atom has 7 valence electrons. Total number of valence electrons
is 14

Cl2
 DOT DIAGRAMS OF SIMPLE MOLECULES

Rule 3 – a covalent bond Rule 1 – atoms tend to

consists of 2, 4, or 6 transfer or share electrons to
shared electrons . In a obtain 8 electron in their
single bond, 2 electrons outer energy level.
(one pair) are shared.

Cl Cl
Cl Cl Cl Cl
Rule 2 – the number of dots in the diagram
We still have 12
of a compound equals the sum of the
more valence
valence electrons for each atom in the
electrons to add
compound
DOT DIAGRAMS OF SIMPLE MOLECULES

Valence electrons
not involved in a
bond are called lone
Cl Cl pairs

These are the

bonding electrons.
One from each
atom.
 Ex. 1 – Draw the dot diagram for O2

How many valence electrons

does O have?

_________ x 2 __________

O O

You have to utilize a

double bond
 Ex. 2 – Draw the dot diagram for Br2

How many valence electrons

does Br have?

_________ x2 ____________

Br Br
 MAKING IT SIMPLER

• To make a dot diagram somewhat simple, chemists will show the bonding electrons as a line instead
of dots

Cl Cl Cl Cl

O O O O

N N N N
 Ex. 3 – Draw the dot diagram for N2

How many valence electrons does N

have?

_________ x 2 = ___________

N N Or N N
 Ex. 4 – Draw the dot diagram for CO

How many valence electrons

does C have?

_________
How many valence electrons
does O have?
C O
_________

Total valence electrons?

_________
DOT DIAGRAMS OF SIMPLE MOLECULES

• For molecules of three or more atoms, you need to think about how the atoms are
arranged.
• If a molecule has only one atom of a certain element, that atom is usually in the center.
The other atoms are bonded to it.
 Ex. 5 – Draw the dot diagram for CH4

How many valence electrons How many valence electrons The electronegativity difference:
does C have? does H have? 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4
Slightly polar covalent
_________ _________

H H
H C H H C H
H H
 Ex. 6 – Draw the dot diagram for NH3

How many valence electrons How many valence electrons The electronegativity difference:
does N have? does H have? 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9
Slightly more polar covalent
_________ _________

H N H H N H
H H
 Ex. 7 – Draw the dot diagram for CO2

How many valence electrons How many valence electrons The electronegativity difference:
does C have? does O have? 3.5 – 2.5 = 1.0
Polar covalent bond
_________ _________ x2 __________

O C O O C O
 Ex. 8 – Draw the dot diagram for HCN – it tells us to put C in
the center

How many valence How many valence How many valence The electronegativity
electrons does H electrons does C electrons does N difference:
have? have? have? H – 2.1
C – 2.5
_________ _________ _________ N – 3.0
Polar covalent bond

H C N H C N
 DOT DIAGRAMS OF POLYATOMIC IONS

• From Chapter 3, you know that a polyatomic ion acts as a single cation or anion in an ionic
compound
• However, atoms within the polyatomic ion are held together by covalent bonds
• For example, NaNO3 consists of a cation, Na1+ and an anion NO31-

1-
O
Na1+ N O
O
 Ex. 9 – Draw the dot diagram for CO32-

How many valence How many valence Don’t forget the 2-

electrons does C electrons does O charge
have? have?
_________
_________ _________
2- 2- 2- 2-
O O O O
O C O O C O O C O O C O
LESSON 3 – MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
LESSON 3 – OBJECTIVES

• Name five molecular shapes and give an example of each

• Explain how lone pairs affect the geometry of a molecule
• Identify the molecular geometry of a molecule based on its dot diagram
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

• Dot diagrams on paper are flat, but the molecules they represent have three-
dimensional shapes.
• The particular shape of a molecule is its molecular geometry
• The key to this is, valence electron pairs repel each other.
• VSEPR Theory or Valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory
• The idea that molecular geometry is determined by minimizing the repulsion between
valence electron pairs
• Think of a molecule with a center atom. The bonds to the center atom are positioned
as far away as possible in three dimensions.
LINEAR GEOMETRY

• Let’s look at CO2

O C O

• To minimize electron-pair repulsion around the center atom, the electrons

that make up the double bonds are as far apart as possible.
• I.e.: opposite sides of the center atom
LINEAR GEOMETRY

• So, what shape does this give us?

• A straight line.
O C O
• The two double bonds are 180-degrees apart.
• a straight geometry is called linear
• Having a flat, straight geometry
 TRIGONAL PLANAR GEOMETRY

• A different molecular geometry can be seen in a carbonate ion, CO32-

• Its dot diagram looks like this:
2-
O

O C O
 TRIGONAL PLANAR GEOMETRY

• Dot diagrams usually show 90-degree or

180-degree angles between bonds. 2-

• This is not, however, the greatest distance O

between the three bonds.
• According to VSEPR theory, a 120-
C
degree angle is best. O O
• This is called trigonal planar
• Having a flat, triangle-shape geometry
 TETRAHEDRAL GEOMETRY

H
• A third type of geometry is shown by CH4
• These four bonds are all at 90-degree angles in the dot diagram H C H
• In a three-dimensional world though, we can put those bonds H
even further apart.
• We can now place them 109.5-degrees apart.
TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL GEOMETRY

• One thing you may have noticed about all these geometries. There are no lone
pairs on the central atom.
• When this occurs, the geometry is affected
• This is because the lone pair takes up space, just like a bonding pair would
• Plus, the lone pair repels bonding electrons.
• As a result, the bond angles are a little different.
 TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL GEOMETRY

• Let’s take a look at the dot diagram for ammonia, NH3 H N H

• The central nitrogen has 4 electron pairs
H
• 3 are bonds to hydrogens
• 1 is a lone pair
• Somewhat like tetrahedral, but only 3 atoms are bonded to the
nitrogen
• The top is missing.
 TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL GEOMETRY

• This is called a trigonal pyramidal H N H

• Having a tetrahedral geometry that is affected by a lone pair
• Bond angles here are now 107-degrees, slightly less than the
H
tetrahedral.
• This is due to the lone pair having a bit of freedom of
movement, thus it can repel the 3 bonded pairs more strongly.
 Ex. 1 – Draw the dot diagram of PF3 and identify its
molecular geometry
How many valence electrons
does P have?

5
_________
How many valence electrons
F P F
does F have?
F
7
_________

Total valence electrons?

Trigonal
26
_________ Pyramidal
 BENT GEOMETRY

• Our last type of geometry is called bent H O H

• Having a tetrahedral geometry that is affected by two
lone pairs O
H H
• As you can see, the center oxygen atom has 2 lone pairs
• The 2 lone pairs will then repel the 2 bonding pairs even
more.
• 104.5-degrees
LESSON 4 – POLAR AND NONPOLAR MOLECULES
LESSON 4 – OBJECTIVES

• Name the two characteristics of a polar molecule

• Describe an asymmetric molecular geometry
• Tell whether a molecule is polar or nonpolar
 LET’S EXAMINE

• Water • Carbon dioxide

• Liquid at room temperature • Gas at room temperature
• Dissolves many substances, • Rarely acts as a solvent
including carbon dioxide • Has a linear molecular geometry
• Has a bent molecular geometry

O O C O
H H
 POLAR/NONPOLA
R

O O C O
H H
• In a water molecule, the shared electrons spend • In carbon dioxide, the shared electrons spend more
more time near the more electronegative O time near each O atom.
atom.
• However, since this is linear, there are negative
• And, since it is a bent geometry, that gives the charges at both ends
O atom a slightly more negative charge.
• The center of the molecule is the center of the
• Each H atom has a slightly more positive charge
negative charges, but also the location of the positive
• Thus, this is a polar molecule charge.
• This is a nonpolar molecule
 POLAR/NONPOLAR

O O C O
H H

• Polar molecule • Nonpolar molecule

• A molecule with a slight positive • A molecule in which the positive
charge on one end and a slight negative charges and the negative charges are
charge on the other end; also called a both balanced in the middle of the
dipole molecule
 HOW DO YOU KNOW IF A MOLECULE IS POLAR
OR NONPOLAR?
• All polar molecules have two characteristics
• The have at least one polar covalent bond
• Their geometry is asymmetric
• Having an unbalanced arrangement
• Asymmetric molecules have one or both of these characteristics
• They have lone pairs on the center atom
• They have different atoms bonded to the center atom
• A polar covalent bond has an electronegativity difference in the 0.4 to 1.7 range.
• Bent and trigonal pyramidal have lone pairs, so they are always asymmetric
 Ex. 1 – Is CH4 a polar or nonpolar molecule?

• Carbon’s electronegativity 2.5

• Hydrogen’s 2.1

H • Electronegativity difference 0.4

• This is a polar covalent bond
H C H
• However
H • No lone pairs
• Not asymmetric
• This is a nonpolar molecule
WITH YOUR PARTNERS, CONSTRUCT THE CH4
(METHANE) MOLECULE

Tetrahedral
 Ex. 1.1 – Is SiS2 a polar or nonpolar molecule?

• Silicons’s electronegativity 1.8

• Sulfur 1.8
• Electronegativity difference 0.0
• This is a nonpolar covalent bond
S S S
• However
i
• Symmetric
• This is a nonpolar molecule
WITH YOUR PARTNERS, CONSTRUCT THE SiS2
(SILICON DISULFIDE) LINEAR MOLECULE

Linear
Ex. 2 – Is NH3 a polar or nonpolar molecule?

• Nitrogen’s electronegativity 3.0

• Hydrogen’s 2.1
• Electronegativity difference 0.9
H N H • This is a polar covalent bond

H
• It is asymmetric because of the lone
pair on the nitrogen atom
• This is a polar molecule
 WITH YOUR PARTNERS, CONSTRUCT THE NH3
(AMMONIA) TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL MOLECULE

Trigonal
pyramidal
 Ex. 3 – Is HCN a polar or nonpolar molecule?

• Carbon’s electronegativity 2.5

• Hydrogen’s 2.1
• Nitrogen’s 3.0
• Electronegativity difference H-C 0.4
H C N
• Electronegativity difference C-N 0.5
• Both are polar covalent bond
• The two atoms bonded to the center atom are different. It
is, therefore, asymmetric
• This is a polar molecule
WITH YOUR PARTNERS, CONSTRUCT THE HCN
(HYDROGEN CYANIDE) LINEAR MOLECULE

Linear
LESSON 5 –
INTERPARTICLE
FORCES
LESSON 5 – INTERPARTICLE FORCES

• List five kinds of attractive forces between particles

• Tell when and why each force occurs
• Explain the properties of some substances in terms of attractive forces
INTERPARTICLE FORCES

• You have learned that the electron arrangement in covalent bonding affects the
shape of a molecule
• And, that a molecule’s shape affects the properties of the substance
• There are other forces that act on particles in matter other than covalent bonds,
which, in turn, also can affect the properties of substances
INTERPARTICLE FORCES

• There are five kinds of attractive forces between particles in substances

• These are called interparticle forces.
• An attractive force between particles in a substance
• They can occur between atoms, molecules, or ions
• All of these forces are caused by polarity
• The presence of separate areas of positive and negative charge
• These are listed in order of bond strength
 DISPERSION FORCES

• Dispersion force
• A weak, temporary force of attraction between two
particles that results from a temporary closeness of
electrons within each particle.
• They are weak because they are temporary
• Dispersion forces increase if:
• Temperature decreases
• Particle size increases
• Can be either solids, liquids, or gases
 DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES

• Dipole-dipole forces
• A permanent attractive force between oppositely charged ends of two polar
molecules
• Remember our polar molecules
• Uneven distribution of charge is permanent
• Can attract other polar molecules.
 HYDROGEN BONDING

• Hydrogen bonding
• A strong attractive force between the hydrogen atom of one
polar molecule and an oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine atom of
another molecule.
• Since the electronegativity difference between hydrogen and any
of those three elements (O, N, F), hydrogen’s one electron spends
almost all of its time near the electronegative atom.
• Hydrogen is now, basically a bare proton, and will be attracted to
the negative end of another molecule (the end with O, N, or F)
 METALLIC BONDING

• Metallic bonding
• A strong attractive force among metal atoms that
occurs because valence electrons are shared,
creating a sea of electrons
• Valence electrons are loosely held.
• Because of this, they become delocalized, not located
in or between certain atoms, but shared among all the
atoms.
• Often referred to as a sea of electrons
METALLIC BONDING

• Because of this sea of electrons

• Conduct electricity quite well
• Conduct heat very well
• Helps in them being ductile and
malleable
IONIC BONDING

• Occurs when there is an electronegativity difference of 1.7 and greater.

• Valence electrons no longer shared, but completely transferred.
• Ionic bonding holds together ions in crystals made up of repeating cations and anions
• Have high melting and boiling points
• Dissolved fairly well in water
• When dissolved, can conduct electricity very well

• Unlike metals, they are very brittle

• Having the property of shattering when hit with force
 SUMMARIZE

Interparticle Forces
FORCE PARTICLES
Dispersion force All atoms and molecules
Dipole-dipole force Polar molecules
Hydrogen bonding Polar molecules that contain an H-N, H-O, or H-F bond
Metallic bonding Atoms in elemental metals
Ionic bonding Ions