Subject Name Code Credit Hours

Sociology BBA 1263 3

Sociology
BBA 1263

Sociological Investigation
2 Lecture Hours

Lecturer : Mrs. Pratima Giri

Email: pratimagiri92@gmail.com
 Course Evaluation
Course Evaluation
• Consists of Two components, namely:
• 1. Continuous Evaluation:
– Quizzes 10%
– Assignment 20%
– Mid-Semester Exam 20%

• 2. Final Examination: 50%

• TOTAL 100%
 Learning
Course Modes
Evaluation
 Lectures
 Tutorials
 Quizzes
 Exams
 Projects
 Presentations
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomesof
ofthe
theSession
Session
• Sociological investigation starts with two simple requirements:
 Apply the sociological perspective. This point of view reveals curious
pattern of behaviour all around us that call for further study.
 Be curious and ask questions.
• Seeing the world sociologically and asking questions are basic to sociology.
• When sociologists apply the sociological perspective and begin to ask
questions, no topic is off limits. Every aspect of human behavior is a
source of possible investigation. Sociologists question the world that
humans have created and live in. They notice patterns of behavior as
people move through that world. 
• sociologists use empirical evidence (that is, evidence verified by direct
experience and/or observation) combined with the scientific method or
an interpretive framework to deliver sound sociological research. They
also rely on a theoretical foundation that provides an interpretive
perspective through which they can make sense of scientific results.
• Approaches to Sociological Research
 Three Ways to do sociology
• Sociologists often begin the research process by asking a question about
how or why things happen in this world. It might be a unique question
about a new trend or an old question about a common aspect of life. Once
the sociologist forms the question, he or she proceeds through an in-
depth process to answer it. In deciding how to design that process, the
researcher may adopt a scientific approach or an interpretive framework.
The following sections describe these approaches to knowledge.
 The Scientific Method
• Sociologists make use of tried and true methods of research, such as
experiments, surveys, and field research. But humans and their social
interactions are so diverse that these interactions can seem impossible to
chart or explain. It might seem that science is about discoveries and
chemical reactions or about proving ideas right or wrong rather than
about exploring the nuances of human behavior.
• However, this is exactly why scientific models work for studying human
behavior. A scientific process of research establishes parameters that help
make sure results are objective and accurate. Scientific methods provide
limitations and boundaries that focus a study and organize its results.
• The scientific method involves developing and testing theories about the
world based on empirical evidence. It is defined by its commitment to
systematic observation of the empirical world and strives to be objective,
critical, skeptical, and logical. It involves a series of prescribed steps that
have been established over centuries of scholarship.
• Just because sociological studies use scientific methods does not make the
results less human. Sociological topics are not reduced to right or wrong
facts. In this field, results of studies tend to provide people with access to
knowledge they did not have before—knowledge of other cultures,
knowledge of rituals and beliefs, or knowledge of trends and attitudes. No
matter what research approach they use, researchers want to maximize
the study’s reliability, which refers to how likely research results are to be
replicated if the study is reproduced. Reliability increases the likelihood
that what happens to one person will happen to all people in a group.
Researchers also strive for validity, which refers to how well the study
measures what it was designed to measure. Validity would ensure that the
study’s design accurately examined what it was designed to study.
• Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but also to
interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and
objectivity.
• Sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much
objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study. 
• Sociologists can use the scientific method not only to collect but to
interpret and analyze the data. They deliberately apply scientific logic and
objectivity. They are interested in but not attached to the results. Their
research work is independent of their own political or social beliefs. This
does not mean researchers are not critical. Nor does it mean they do not
have their own personalities, complete with preferences and opinions. But
sociologists deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much
objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a particular study. With its
systematic approach, the scientific method has proven useful in shaping
sociological studies. The scientific method provides a systematic,
organized series of steps that help ensure objectivity and consistency in
exploring a social problem. They provide the means for accuracy,
reliability, and validity  
• Objective reality exists out there, the job of the sociologist is to reveal
this reality by gathering empirical evidence and facts.
• Ask a Question :The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question,
describe a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic
should be narrow enough to study within a geography and time frame. 
When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop
an operational definition, that is, they define the concept in terms of the
physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. An
operational definition allows the researchers to describe in a specific way
what they mean when they use a certain term. Generally, operational
definitions are concrete and measurable.
• Sociologists do not rule out any topic, but would strive to frame these
questions in better research terms. That is why sociologists are careful to
define their terms. In a hygiene study, for instance, hygiene could be
defined as “personal habits to maintain physical appearance (as opposed
to health),” and a researcher might ask, “How do differing personal
hygiene habits reflect the cultural value placed on appearance?” When
forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop
an operational definition; that is, they define the concept in terms of the
physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The concept is
translated into an observable variable, a measure that has different
values. 
 When forming these basic research questions, sociologists develop
an operational definition; that is, they define the concept in terms of the
physical or concrete steps it takes to objectively measure it. The concept is
translated into an observable variable, a measure that has different.
By operationalizing a variable of the concept, all researchers can collect
data in a systematic or replicable manner. The operational definition must
be valid in the sense that it is an appropriate and meaningful measure of
the concept being studied. It must also be reliable, meaning that results
will be close to uniform when tested on more than one person.
For example, “good drivers” might be defined in many ways: those who use
their turn signals, those who don’t speed, or those who courteously allow
others to merge. But these driving behaviours could be interpreted
differently by different researchers and could be difficult to measure.
Alternatively, “a driver who has never received a traffic violation” is a
specific description that will lead researchers to obtain the same
information, so it is an effective operational definition.
• A variable is any entity that can take on different values. OK, so what does
that mean? Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For
instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different
values for different people or for the same person at different times.
Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person’s country
can be assigned a value.
• In research, independent variables are the cause of the change.
The dependent variable is the effect, or thing that is changed.
• For example, in a basic study, the researcher would establish one form of
human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it
has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable)
affect rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion
(the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)?
How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education
(the independent variable)?
• Once the preliminary work is done, it’s time for the next research steps:
designing and conducting a study and drawing conclusions.
• Research Existing Sources: The next step researchers undertake is to
conduct background research through a literature review, which is a
review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library and a
thorough online search will uncover existing research about the topic of
study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work
previously conducted on the topic at hand and enables them to position
their own research to build on prior knowledge.
• Formulate a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a supposition or proposed
explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for
further investigation. A hypothesisis an assumption about how two or
more variables are related; it makes a conjectural statement about the
relationship between those variables. In sociology, the hypothesis will
often predict how one form of human behavior influences another.
 Limitation of Scientific Sociology
• Human behavior is too complex for sociologists to predict any individual’s
actions precisely.
• Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a
researcher may affect the behavior being studied.
• Social patterns change; what is true in one time in one place may not hold
true to another.
• Because sociologists are part of the social world they study, being value
free when conducting social research is difficult.
 Interpretive Framework
• While many sociologists rely on the scientific method as a research
approach, others operate from an interpretive framework. While
systematic, this approach doesn’t follow the hypothesis-testing model that
seeks to find generalizable results. Instead, an interpretive framework,
sometimes referred to as an interpretive perspective, seeks to understand
social worlds from the point of view of participants, which leads to in-
depth knowledge.
• Interpretive research is generally more descriptive or narrative in its
findings. Rather than formulating a hypothesis and method for testing it,
an interpretive researcher will develop approaches to explore the topic at
hand that may involve a significant amount of direct observation or
interaction with subjects. This type of researcher also learns as he or she
proceeds and sometimes adjusts the research methods or processes
midway to optimize findings as they evolve.
 The interpretative sociology differs from scientific sociology:

• Scientific sociology focuses on actions, what people do. Interpretative

focuses on the meaning people attach to their actions.
• Scientific sociology sees an objective reality “out there” but interpretative
sees reality constructed by people themselves in the course of their
everyday action.
• Weber used the term “Verstehen”, a German word for understanding. The
is does not just observe what people do but also tries to understand why
they do it.
 Critical sociology
• The third research orientation in sociology.
• Disagrees with the foremost principle of scientific research : objectivity.
• For scientific sociology, reality is out there and researcher’s task is to
document this reality. But Karl Marx who founded the critical orientation
rejected the idea that society exists as a “natural” system with fixed order.
To assume this, he claimed, is the same as saying that society cannot be
changed.
• Critical sociology, by contrast is the study of society that focuses on the
need for social change.
• Rather than asking the question how the society works? Critical sociologist
ask moral and political questions such as, “should society exist in its
present form?”
• Sociology is not just to research the social world but to change it in the
direction of democracy and social justice
• Critical sociology rejects Weber’s view of sociology that researchers must
be value free. Instead it emphasizes that they should be activists in pursuit
of desirable change.
• Sociologists using the critical orientation seek to change not just the
society but the nature of research itself. They often identify personally
with the research subjects and encourage them to help decide what to
study and how to do the work.
• Critical sociology is often criticized for being too political, but critical
sociologist responds to this claim stating that all research is political or
biased- either it calls for a change or it doesn’t. critical sociology\][ is
activists oriented seeking not just to understand the world but also to
improve it.
 Research Methods
• A research method is a systematic plan for doing research. Four commonly
used methods of sociological investigation are experiments, surveys,
participant observation, and existing resources. None is better or worse
than any other. Rather, just as a carpenter chooses a particular tool for a
particular job, researchers select a method according to whom they want
to study and what they want to learn
• Experiments in sociology work much as they do in the natural sciences,
just with humans as subjects instead of mice or atoms. One way
researchers test hypothesis is by conducting an experiment, meaning they
investigate relationships to test a hypothesis—a scientific approach.
• There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and
natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be
controlled so that perhaps more data can be recorded in a certain amount
of time. In a natural or field-based experiment, the generation of data
cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more
accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the
researcher.
• As a research method, either type of sociological experiment is useful for
testing if-then statements: if a particular thing happens, then another
particular thing will result. To set up a lab-based experiment, sociologists
create artificial situations that allow them to manipulate variables.
• The sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as
age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups.
One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The
experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the
control group is not.
• To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might expose
the experimental group of students to tutoring but not the control group.
Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if
tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. 
• In an experiment, if the change you predicted occurs for the experimental
group but not for the control group, then your experiment supports your
hypothesis. 
• An experimenter gathers the evidence needed to reject or to not reject the
hypothesis in four steps: (1) State which variable is the independent
variable (the “cause” of the change) and which is the dependent variable
(the “effect,” the thing that is changed). (2) Measure the initial value of the
dependent variable. (3) Expose the dependent variable to the independent
variable (the “cause” or “treatment”). (4) Measure the dependent variable
again to see what change, if any, took place. If the expected change took
place, the experiment supports the hypothesis; if not, the hypothesis must
be modified
• A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of
statements or questions often in the form of a questionnaire. As the most
widely used of all research methods, the survey is well suited to studying
what cannot be observed directly, such as political attitudes or religious
beliefs. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity
in which they can express personal ideas.
•
Typically, researchers are interested in the responses of a specific group of
people – what we call the population of interest. Women aged 18 to 35,
Left-handed people, Youtubers. Whoever your research question is about,
this is your population. But it’s unlikely you’ll be able to survey the WHOLE
population. Even government-run surveys, like the Census, don’t reach
everyone. So instead, you survey a sample – a smaller group that’s
representative of the population.
• The success of a study depends on how well a population is represented
by the sample. In a random sample, every person in a population has the
same chance of being chosen for the study. According to the laws of
probability, random samples represent the population as a whole. 
• survey can take many forms. There can be open-ended questions, or Yes
or No questions. The questions can appear in many different orders, or be
phrased in different ways. So, sociologists have to think carefully about
these things and about whether the structure of their survey might bias
the respondents’ answers.
• In an interview, a researcher personally asks subjects a series of
questions, thereby solving one problem common to the questionnaire
method: the failure of some subjects to return the questionnaire to the
researcher. A further difference is that interviews give participants
freedom to respond as they wish. Researchers often ask follow-up
questions to clarify an answer or to probe a bit more deeply. In doing this,
however, a researcher must avoid influencing the subject even in subtle
ways, such as by raising an eyebrow as the subject offers an answer.
 In the Field: Participant Observation
• Participant observation is when researchers observe people by joining
them in their daily routines. The result of this type of research is called an
ethnography. Researchers try to integrate themselves into a community,
hanging out with their subjects, working with them, and so on. They’re
both observers and participants. This type of data-collection tends to be
exploratory and descriptive. You’re not trying to prove a specific
hypothesis. Instead you’re trying to understand the lifestyle of your
subject.
• Some say that this type of research is too subjective, but a major benefit
of doing fieldwork is that it lets you to gain insights into people’s behavior,
in the real world, in a way that experiments won’t.
• A researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, live as a homeless person
for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their
regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the
population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or
purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.
• While field research often begins in a specific setting, the study’s purpose
is to observe specific behaviors in that setting. Field work is optimal for
observing how people behave. It is less useful, however, for
understanding why they behave that way. You can’t really narrow down
cause and effect when there are so many variables floating around in a
natural environment.
 Using Available Data: Existing Sources
• Not all research requires investigators to collect new data. Sometimes
sociologists make use of existing sources , a research method in which a
researcher uses data already collected by others . The data most widely
used by researchers are gathered by government agencies. Using available
information saves time and money. This method has special appeal to
sociologists with low budgets. And in fact, government data are usually
more extensive and more accurate than what most researchers could
obtain on their own. But using available data, as we noted above, has
problems of its own. Data may not be available in the exact form that is
needed. For example, you may be able to find the average salaries paid to
professors at your school but not separate figures for the amounts paid to
women and men. Further, there are always questions about how accurate
the existing data are. In his nineteenthcentury study of suicide, described
earlier, Emile Durkheim used official records. But Durkheim had no way to
know if a death classified as a suicide was really an accident or vice versa.
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