Computer Network

Fundamentals of Computer
Networking

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 What Is a Network?

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 What Is a Network?
• A network is a connected collection of devices
and end systems, such as computers and
servers, which can communicate with each
other.
• Networks carry data in many types of
environments, including homes, small
businesses, and large enterprises.

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Common Physical Components of a Network

• This topic describes the typical physical

components of a network, including PCs,
• interconnections, switches, and routers.

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Common Physical Components of a Network

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Common Physical Components of a Network

• Personal computers (PCs): The computers

serve as end points in the network, sending
and receiving data
• Interconnections: The interconnections consist
of components that provide a means for data
to travel from one point to another point in
the network. This category includes
components such as the following:

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• Network interface cards (NICs) that translate the
data produced by the computer into a format
that can be transmitted over the local network
— Network media, such as cables or wireless
media, that provide the means by which the
signals are transmitted from one networked
device to another
— Connectors that provide the connection points
for the media
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 Conti…
• Switches: Switches are devices that provide
network attachment to the end systems and
intelligent switching of the data within the
local network.
• Routers: Routers interconnect networks and
choose the best paths between networks.

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 Interpreting a Network Diagram

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 Interpreting a Network Diagram

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 Resource-Sharing Functions and Benefits

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 Resource-Sharing Functions and Benefits

• Networks allow end users to share both

information and hardware resources. The
major resources that are shared in a computer
network include the following:

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 Resource-Sharing Functions and Benefits

• Data and applications : When users are

connected through a network, they can share
files and even software application programs,
making data more easily available and
promoting more efficient collaboration on
work projects.

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 Conti…
• Resources: The resources that can be shared
include both input devices, such as cameras,
and output devices, such as printers.
• Backup devices: A network can also include
backup devices, such as tape drives, that
provide a central means to save files from
multiple computers. Network storage is also
used to provide archive capability, business
continuance, and disaster recovery.
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 Conti…
• Network storage: Direct attached storage
(DAS) directly connects physical storage to a
PC or a shared server
• Network attached storage (NAS) makes
storage available through a special network
appliance.
• storage area networks (SANs) provide a
network of storage devices.

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 SAN

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 Network User Applications
• While there are many applications available
for users in a network environment, some
applications are common to nearly all users.
This topic describes common network user
applications.

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 Network User Applications
• E-mail (Outlook, POP3, Yahoo, and so on)
• Web browser (IE, Firefox, and so on)
• Instant messaging (Yahoo IM, Microsoft
Messenger, and so on)
• Collaboration (Whiteboard, Netmeeting,
WebEx, and so on)
• Databases (file servers)

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 Characteristics of a Network
• Speed
• Cost
• Security
• Availability
• Scalability
• Reliability
• Topology

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 Conti…
• Speed: Speed is a measure of how fast data is
transmitted over the network. A more precise
term would be data rate.
• Cost : Cost indicates the general cost of
components, installation, and maintenance of
the network.

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 Conti…
• Security: Security indicates how secure the
network is, including the data that is
transmitted over the network. The subject of
security is important and constantly evolving.
• Availability : Availability is a measure of the
probability that the network will be available
for use when it is required.

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 Conti…
• Scalability : Scalability indicates how well the
network can accommodate more users and
data transmission requirements. If a network
is designed and optimized for just the current
requirements, it can be very expensive and
difficult to meet new needs when the network
grows.

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 Conti…
• Reliability : Reliability indicates the
dependability of the components (routers,
switches, PCs, and so on) that make up the
network.

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 Network Categories
• Local Area Network (LAN)

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Personal Area Network (PAN)

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 Local Area Network (LAN)
• A LAN is a network that is used for communicating
among computer devices, usually within an office
building or home.
• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or
hardware devices that may be needed by multiple users
• Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred
meters, and no more than a mile
• Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
• Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting
to each device
• Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s
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 Local Area Network (LAN)
• LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair,
coax or fibre optic cable can be used in wired
LAN’s.
• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that
governs how packets are configured and
transmitted.
• Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain
topology. These topologies include: Bus – Ring –
Star
• LANs are capable of very high transmission rates
(100s Mb/s to Gb/s).
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 Local Area Network (LAN)

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 Advantages of LAN
• Speed
• Cost
• Security
• E-mail
• Resource Sharing

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 Disadvantages of LAN
• Expensive To Install
• Requires Administrative Time
• File Server May Fail
• Cables May Break

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large
computer network that usually spans a city or
a large campus.
• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical
area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks
of buildings to entire cities.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a
single organization, but it usually will be used
by many individuals and organizations.
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Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A MAN often acts as a high speed network to
allow sharing of regional resources.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5
and 50 km diameter.
• Examples of MAN: Telephone company
network that provides a high speed DSL to
customers and cable TV network.

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 MAN

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 Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN covers a large geographic area such as
country, continent or even whole of the world.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together.
The LANs can be many miles apart.
• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit
data over leased high-speed phone lines or
wireless links such as satellites.

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 WAN
• Multiple LANs can be connected together
using devices such as bridges, routers, or
gateways, which enable them to share data.
• The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.

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 WAN

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 LAN vs WAN

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 Personal Area Network (PAN)
• A PAN is a network that is used for
communicating among computers and
computer devices (including telephones) in
close proximity of around a few meters within a
room
• It can be used for communicating between the
devices themselves, or for connecting to a
larger network such as the internet.
• PAN’s can be wired or wireless
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 Personal Area Network (PAN)
• A personal area network (PAN) is a computer
network used for communication among
computer devices, including telephones and
personal digital assistants, in proximity to an
individual's body.
• The devices may or may not belong to the
person in question. The reach of a PAN is
typically a few meters.

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 Personal Area Network (PAN)

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 Roles Of Computer In A Network

• Server: it is a computer that share its resource across

the network
• Client: it is a client is one that access shared resources 
• In another way, client request information and server
respond
• Peer: share and request resources from one another
• Fundamentally, any computer on a network plays one
of two basic roles at any given moment:
• The computer can act as client or as server

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 Network Types
• Network falls into two major types:
– Peer-to-Peer
– Client/server or server-based Networks

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 Peer-to-peer Networking

• In Peer-to-peer network computers can take both a client

and a server role
• Because all computers on a such network are peers
• These network impose no centralized control over shared
its resources(such as files or printers).
• The peer relationship also means that no single computer
has any high priority
• In peer-to-peer network, every user must also acts an
administrator
• Peer-to-to peer network are uniquely well suited to small
organization, which tends to have small network and small
operating budget
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 Peer-to-peer Networking Advantages

• Easy to install and configure

• Individual machines do not depend on the presence of
dedicated server
• Individual users control their own shared resources
• Peer-to-peer networking is inexpensive to purchase
and operate
• Peer-to-peer networks need no additional equipment
of software beyond a suitable operating system
• No dedicated administrators are needed to run the
network
• Peer-to-peer network works best for few users
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 Peer-to-peer Networking Disadvantages

• Network security applies only to a single

resources at a time
• Users may be forced to use as many passwords as
there are shared resources
• Each machine must be backed up individually to
protect all shared data
• There is no centralized organization scheme to
locate or control access to data
• A peer-to-peer network does not usually work
well with more than 10 users
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 Client/Server Network
• A computer network in which one centralized, 
• powerful computer (called the server ) is
a hub to which many lesspowerful personal 
computers or workstations (called clients ) are
connected. The clients run programs and 
access data that are stored on the server.

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 Server-based-networksadvantages

• Centralized user accounts, security, and access

control simplify network administration
• More efficient access to network resources.
• A single password for network logon deliver
access to all resources
• Server-based networking makes the most
sense of network with 10 or more users or any
networks where resources are shared

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 Server-based-networks disadvantages

• At worst, server failure renders a network

unusable, at the last, it results in loss of
network resources
• Complex, special-purpose software requires
allocation of expert staff, which increased
expense
• Dedicated hardware and specialized software
add to the cost of server-based networking.

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 Network Topologies
• Topology : In networks, there are two types of
topologies: the physical topology, which is the
arrangement of the cable, network devices,
and end systems (PCs and servers), and the
logical topology, which is the path that the
data signals take through the physical
topology.

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 Physical vs. Logical Topologies

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 Bus Topology
• Commonly referred to as a linear bus, all of
the devices on a bus topology are effectively
connected by one single cable.

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 Bus Topology
• As illustrated in the figure, in a bus topology a
cable proceeds from one computer to the next
like a bus line going through a city.

• The main cable segment must end with a

terminator that absorbs the signal when it
reaches the end of the line or wire

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 Conti…
• If there is no terminator, the electrical signal
representing the data bounces back at the end
of the wire, causing errors in the network.

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 Star Topology
• The star topology is the most common
physical topology in Ethernet LANs
• it is made up of a central connection point
that is a device, such as a hub, switch, or
router, where all the cabling segments actually
meet
• Each device on the network is connected to
the central device with its own cable.

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 Conti…
• Although a physical star topology costs more
to implement than the physical bus topology,
• Each device is connected to the central device
with its own wire, so that if that cable has a
problem, only that one device is affected, and
the rest of the network remains operational

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 Conti…
• This benefit is extremely important and is the
reason why almost every newly designed
Ethernet LAN has a physical star topology

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 Extended-Star Topology

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 Extended-Star Topology
• When a star network is expanded to include an
additional network device that is connected to
the main network devices, the topology is
referred to as an extended-star topology.
• The problem with the pure extended-star
topology is that if the central node point fails,
large portions of the network can become
isolated.

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 Ring Topologies

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 Ring Topologies
• As the name implies, in a ring topology all the
devices on a network are connected in the
form of a ring or circle.
• Unlike the physical bus topology, a ring type of
topology has no beginning or end that needs
to be terminated.

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 Ring Topologies
• Data is transmitted in a way that is very
different from the logical bus topology.
• In one implementation, a “token” travels
around the ring, stopping at each device
• If a device wants to transmit data, it adds that
data and the destination address to the token
• The token then continues around the ring until
it finds the destination device

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 Ring Topologies
• which takes the data out of the token. The
advantage of using this type of method is that
there are no collisions of data packets.
• There are two types of ring topology: single-
ring and dual-ring.

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 Mesh Topology
• In a mesh topology, every device has a
dedicated point-to-point link to every other
device. The term dedicated means that the
link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects. 

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 Advantages of Mesh Topology
• The use of dedicated links guarantees that
each connection can carry its own data load
• A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes
unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system. 
• There is the advantage of privacy or security.
When every message travels along a
dedicated line, only the intended recipient
sees it. 

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 Disadvantages of Mesh topology
• The amount of cabling because every device
must be connected to every other device,
installation and reconnection are difficult. 
• Wiring can be greater than the available space
(in walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate
•  The hardware required to connect each link
(I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively
expensive. 

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 Tree Topology

• It has a root node and all other nodes are

connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least
have three levels to the hierarchy.
• Ideal if workstations are located in groups.
• Used in Wide Area Network.

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 Advantages of Tree Topology

• Extension of bus and star topologies.

• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
• Easily managed and maintained.
• Error detection is easily done.

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 Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• Heavily cabled.
• Costly.
• If more nodes are added maintenance is
difficult.
• Central hub fails, network fails.

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 Hybrid Topology

• It is two different types of topologies which is a

mixture of two or more topologies.
• For example if in an office in one department
ring topology is used and in another star
topology is used, connecting these topologies
will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and
star topology).
• It is a combination of two or topologies
• Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of
the topologies included
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 Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• Reliable as Error detecting and trouble
shooting is easy.
• Effective.
• Scalable as size can be increased easily.
• Flexible
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
• Complex in design.
• Costly.

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 Connection Types
Point to Point and Multipoint Connection
• The point-to-point and Multipoint are two types of
line configuration. Both of them describes a method
to connect two or more communication devices in a
link. The main difference between point-to-point
and multipoint connection is that in a point-to-point
connection the link is only between two devices i.e.
a sender and a receiver. On the other hand, in a
multipoint connection ,the link is between a sender
and multiple receivers
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 Point to Point Connection
• The point-to-point connection is a unicast
connection. There is a dedicated link between
an individual pair of sender and receiver. The
capacity of the entire channel is reserved only
for the transmission of the packet between
the sender and receiver.

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 Multipoint Connection
• In multipoint connection, a single link is
shared by multiple devices. So, it can be said
that the channel capacity is shared
temporarily by every device connecting to the
link.

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 Summary
• A network is a connected collection of devices that can communicate
with each other. Networks carry data in many kinds of environments,
including homes, small businesses, and large enterprises.
• There are four major categories of physical components in a computer
network: the computer, interconnections, switches, and routers.
• Networks are depicted graphically using a set of standard icons.
• The major resources that are shared in a computer network include
data and applications, peripherals, storage devices, and backup devices.
• The most common network user applications include e-mail, web
browsers, instant messaging, collaboration, and databases.
• User applications affect the network by consuming network resources.

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 Summary
• The ways in which networks can be described include characteristics
that address network performance and structure: speed, cost, security,
availability, scalability, reliability, and topology.
• A physical topology describes the layout for wiring the physical devices,
while a logical topology describes how information flows through a
network.
• In a physical bus topology, a single cable effectively connects all the
devices.
• In a physical star topology, each device in the network is connected to
the central device with its own cable.
• When a star network is expanded to include additional networking
devices that are connected to the main networking device, it is called
an extended-star topology.

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 Summary
• In a ring topology, all the hosts are connected
in the form of a ring or circle.
• In a dual-ring topology, there are two rings to
provide redundancy in the network.
• A full-mesh topology connects all devices to
each other; in a partial-mesh topology, at least
one device has multiple connections to all
other devices.

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 The OSI Reference Model
• The OSI reference model provides a means of
describing how data is transmitted over a
network.
• It provided vendors with a set of standards
that ensured greater compatibility and
interoperability between the various types of
network technologies produced by companies
around the world.

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• The OSI model is considered the best tool
available for teaching people about sending
and receiving data on a network.
• The OSI reference model separates network
functions into seven categories.
• This separation of networking functions is
called layering

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• The OSI reference model has seven numbered
layers, each illustrating a particular network
function.
• The OSI model defines the network functions
that occur at each layer

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• More importantly, the OSI model facilitates an
understanding of how information travels
throughout a network. In addition, the OSI
model describes how data travels from
application programs (for example,
spreadsheets) through a network medium, to
an application program located in another
computer, even if the sender and receiver are
connected using different network media.

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 The OSI Model Layers and Their Function

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 Layer 1: The Physical Layer
• The physical layer defines the electrical,
mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and
deactivating the physical link between end
systems

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• Characteristics such as voltage levels, timing of
voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.

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 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer
• The data link layer defines how data is
formatted for transmission and how access to
the physical media is controlled.
• This layer also typically includes error
detection and correction to ensure reliable
delivery of the data.

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 Layer 3: The Network Layer
• The network layer provides connectivity and
path selection between two host systems that
may be located on geographically separated
networks
• The growth of the Internet has increased the
number of users accessing information from
sites around the world, and the network layer
is the layer that manages this connectivity.

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 Layer 4: The Transport Layer

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 Encapsulation and De-Encapsulation

• information that is to be transmitted over a

network must undergo a process of
conversion at both the sending end and the
receiving end of the communication
• That conversion process is known as
encapsulation and de-encapsulation of data

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 Encapsulation
• The information sent on a network is referred
to as data or data packets.
• If one computer wants to send data to
another computer, the data must first be
packaged by a process called encapsulation.
• Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary
protocol information before network transit

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 Conti…
• As the data moves down through the layers of
the OSI model, each OSI layer adds a header
(and a trailer, if applicable) to the data before
passing it down to a lower layer
• The headers and trailers contain control
information for the network devices and
receiver to ensure proper delivery of the data
and to ensure that the receiver can correctly
interpret the data.
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 Conti…
• Step 1 The user data is sent from an
application to the application layer.
• Step 2 The application layer adds the
application layer header (Layer 7 header) to
the user data. The Layer 7 header and the
original user data become the data that is
passed down to the presentation layer.

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 Conti…
• Step 3 The presentation layer adds the
presentation layer header (Layer 6 header) to
the data. This then becomes the data that is
passed down to the session layer.
• Step 4 The session layer adds the session
layer header(Layer 5 header) to the data. This
then becomes the data that is passed down to
the transport layer.

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 Conti…
• Step 5 The transport layer adds the transport
layer header (Layer 4 header) to the data. This
then becomes the data that is passed down to
the network layer.
• Step 6 The network layer adds the network
layer header (Layer 3 header) to the data. This
then becomes the data that is passed down to
the data link layer.

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 Conti…
• Step 7 The data link layer adds the data link
layer header and trailer (Layer 2 header and
trailer) to the data. A Layer 2 trailer is usually
the frame check sequence (FCS), which is used
by the receiver to detect whether the data is
in error. This then becomes the data that is
passed down to the physical layer.

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 Conti…
• Step 8 The physical layer then transmits the
bits onto the network media.

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 Physical Layer

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 Physical Layer
• The physical layer defines the electrical,
mechanical, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems.
• Characteristics such as voltage levels, voltage
changes, physical data rates, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.

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 Physical layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movement
of individual bits from one node to the next
• Representation of bits: the physical layer data
consists of a stream of bits to be transmitted
bits must be encoded into signals - electrical
or optical .
• The physical layer define the type of encoding

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 Physical layer
• Data rate : is defined in physical layer
• Synchronization bits : sender and receiver
clock must be synchronize . Same bit rate
• Line configuration: point to point or
multipoint
• Physical topology.
• Transmission Mode:

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 Data Link layer

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 Data Link Layer
• It makes the physical layer appear error free to
the upper layer
• The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one node to the next
• Framing: the data link layer divides the stream
of bits received form the network layer into
manageable data units called frames

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 Data link Layer
• Physical Addressing: define the sender or
receiver . If the frame intended for a system
outside the sender’s network then the address
of the receiver is the address of device which
connect two network
• Flow Control: control the date rate . If
problem then impose a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming

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 Conti.…
• Error Control: add reliability to the physical
layer
• Detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames
• Avoid duplicate frames
• Error control is achieved through a trailer
added to the end of frame

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 Conti…
• Access Control: when two or more devices are
connected to the same link
• It determine which device has control over the
link at any give time

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 Network Layer

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 Network Layer
• The network layer provides connectivity and
path selection between two host systems that
may be located on geographically separated
networks.
• Network layer is responsible for source to
destination delivery of the packet
• Routing .
• Logical Addressing

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 Network layer

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 Network layer
• The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from the source
host to the destination host.

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 Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the
delivery of a message from one process to
another.

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 Transport layer

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 Transport layer
• Service point addressing : from specific
process to specific process
• Error control :
• Connection Control: Connection less and
connection oriented
• Segmentation and reassembly

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 Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
• The session layer is the network dialog
controller it establishes maintains and
synchronize the interaction among
communicating devices .

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 Conti…
• Dialog control: process to process
communication either full duplex or half
duplex
• Synchronization: synchronization point to a
stream of data

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 Presentation Layer
• Translation: encoding ----
• Encryption
• Compression : needed for media
•

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 Application Layer
• The application layer enables the user,
whether human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed
information services.

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 Devices
• Repeater: Physical
• Hub: Physical
• Switches: Data link layer
• Bridge : Data link
• Router: Network layer
• Gateway: Network layer

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 TCP/IP
• Short for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol
• TCP/IP also commonly abbreviated as TCP
• TCP/IP is two separate protocols, TCP and IP,
that are used together

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 TCP/IP
• IP has a packet-addressing method that lets
any computer on the Internet forward a
packet to another computer. The Transmission
Control Protocol ensures the reliability of data
transmission across Internet connected
networks. 

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• TCP checks packets for errors and submits
requests for re-transmissions if errors are found; 
• TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP
networks. Whereas the IP protocol deals only
with packets, TCP enables two hosts to establish
a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP
guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees
that packets will be delivered in the same order
in which they were sent.

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 TCP/IP Suite
• The TCP/IP suite—whose name is actually a
combination of just two individual protocols,
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Internet Protocol (IP)
• divided into layers, each of which performs
specific functions in the data communication
process

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 TCP/IP Suite
• The components, or layers, of the TCP/IP stack
are as follows:

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 Network access layer
• This layer covers the same processes as the
two lower OSI layers:

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 Network access layer
• Physical layer: in OSI Model
• The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical,
procedural,
• and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and
deactivating the
• physical link between end systems. Characteristics such as
voltage levels, timing of
• voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, physical
• connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by
physical layer specifications.

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 Conti…
• Data link layer : The data link layer defines
how data is formatted for transmission and
how access to the network is controlled.

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 Internet layer:
• This layer provides routing of data from the
source to the destination by defining the
packet and the addressing scheme, moving
data between the data link and transport
layers, routing packets of data to remote
hosts,

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 Transport layer
• The transport layer is the core of the TCP/IP
architecture, providing communication
services directly to the application processes
running on network hosts.

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 Application layer
• The application layer provides applications for
file transfer, network troubleshooting, and
Internet activities and supports network
application programming interfaces (APIs) that
allow programs that have been created for a
particular operating system to access the
network.

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 TCP/IP Stack vs. the OSI Model

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• Both the OSI model and the TCP/IP stack were
developed, by different organizations, at
approximately the same time as a means to
organize and communicate the components
that guide the transmission of data.

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• The TCP/IP network access layer roughly
corresponds to the OSI physical and data link
layers and is concerned primarily with
interfacing with network hardware and
accessing the transmission media.

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• The TCP/IP Internet layer corresponds closely
to the network layer of the OSI model and
deals with the addressing of and routing
between network devices.

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• The TCP/IP transport layer, like the OSI
transport layer, provides the means for
multiple host applications to access the
network layer, either in a best-effort mode or
through a reliable delivery mode.

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• The TCP/IP application layer addresses
applications that communicate with the lower
layers and corresponds to the separate
application, presentation, and session layers of
the OSI model.

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Difference between OSI and TCP/IP reference
model
• Home work

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 Summary
• The OSI reference model defines the network functions that
occur at each layer.
• ƒThe physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural,
and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and
deactivating the physical link between end systems.
• ƒThe data link layer defines how data is formatted for
transmission and how access to the physical media is controlled.
• ƒThe network layer provides connectivity and path selection
between two host systems that may be located on geographically
separated networks.

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 Summary (Cont.)
• ƒThe transport layer segments data from the system of the
sending host and reassembles the data into a data stream on
the system of the receiving host.
• ƒThe session layer establishes, manages, and terminates
sessions between two communicating hosts.
• ƒThe presentation layer ensures that the information sent at
the application layer of one system is readable by the
application layer of another system.
• ƒThe application layer provides network services to the
• applications of the user, such as e-mail, file transfer, and
terminal

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 Summary (Cont.)
• ƒThe information sent on a network is referred to
as data or data packets. If one computer wants to
send data to another computer , the data must first
be packaged by a process called encapsulation.
• ƒWhen the remote device receives a sequence of
bits, the physical layer at the remote device passes
the bits to the data link layer for manipulation. This
process is referred to as de-encapsulation.

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 Summary (Cont.)
• TCP/IP is now the most widely used protocol for a number
of reasons, including its flexible addressing scheme, its
usability by most operating systems and platforms, its
many tools and utilities, and the need to use it to connect
to the Internet.
• The components of the TCP/IP stack are the network
access, Internet, transport, and application layers.
• The OSI model and the TCP/IP stack are similar in structure
and function, with correlation at the physical, data link,
network, and transport layers.
•
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• Understanding the
TCP/IP Internet Layer

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