uddin, EE, UPM

What Are Diodes Made Out Of?

• Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are the two most Si Si Si
common single elements that are used to make Diodes. +4 +4 +4

A compound that is commonly used is Gallium

Arsenide (GaAs), especially in the case of LEDs Si Si Si
because of it’s large bandgap. +4 +4 +4

• Silicon and Germanium are both group 4 elements,

Si Si Si
meaning they have 4 valence electrons. Their +4 +4 +4
structure allows them to grow in a shape called the
diamond lattice.
• Gallium is a group 3 element while Arsenide is a group The diagram above shows the
5 element. When put together as a compound, GaAs 2D structure of the Si crystal.
The light green lines
creates a zincblend lattice structure.
represent the electronic
• In both the diamond lattice and zincblend lattice, each bonds made when the
atom shares its valence electrons with its four closest valence electrons are shared.
Each Si atom shares one
neighbors. This sharing of electrons is what ultimately
electron with each of its four
allows diodes to be build. When dopants from groups closest neighbors so that its
3 or 5 (in most cases) are added to Si, Ge or GaAs it valence band will have a full 8
changes the properties of the material so we are able to electrons.
make the P- and N-type materials that become the
diode.

uddin, EE, UPM

 N-Type Material

N-Type Material: When extra valence electrons are introduced

into a material such as silicon an n-type
material is produced. The extra valence
electrons are introduced by putting
+4 +4 +4 impurities or dopants into the silicon. The
dopants used to create an n-type material
are Group V elements. The most commonly
+4 +5 +4 used dopants from Group V are arsenic,
antimony and phosphorus.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the extra
+4 +4 +4 electron that will be present when a Group V
dopant is introduced to a material such as
silicon. This extra electron is very mobile.

uddin, EE, UPM

 P-Type Material

P-Type Material: P-type material is produced when the dopant

that is introduced is from Group III. Group
III elements have only 3 valence electrons
and therefore there is an electron missing.
+4 +4 +4 This creates a hole (h+), or a positive charge
that can move around in the material.
Commonly used Group III dopants are
+4 +3 +4 aluminum, boron, and gallium.
The 2D diagram to the left shows the hole
that will be present when a Group III dopant
+4 +4 +4 is introduced to a material such as silicon.
This hole is quite mobile in the same way the
extra electron is mobile in a n-type material.

uddin, EE, UPM

 THE PN JUNCTION
•Intrinsic silicon or germanium is not a good conductor.
•It must be modified by increasing either free electrons or holes to
increase its conductivity.
•The conductivity of silicon (or germanium) can be drastically
increased by the controlled addition of impurities to the pure
(intrinsic) semiconductor material.
•The process is called doping, increases the number of current
carriers (electrons or holes) as well as increases conductivity and
decreases resistivity.
•The 2 categories of impurities are n-type and ptype. To increase the
number of conduction-band electrons in pure silicon, a controlled
number of are donors pentavalent impurity atoms called added to
the silicon crystal.
•The electrons in n material are called majority carriers and holes or
p materials are called minority carriers.
uddin, EE, UPM
•It is important to note that the process of creating n-type or p-type
materials retain the neutrality overall electrical.
•When a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that half is n type and
the other half is p type..
•A pn junction is formed between the 2 regions
•The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) and a few
thermally generated holes (minority carriers).
•The p region has many holes (majority carriers) and only a few
thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers).
•The pn junction forms a basic diode and is fundamental to the
operation of all solid-state devices.
•A diode is a device that allows current in only one
Direction.

uddin, EE, UPM

 THE DEPLETION REGION
•When the pn junction is formed, some of the conduction electrons
near the junction drift across into the p region and recombine with
holes near the junction.
•For each electron that crosses the junction and recombines with a
hole, a pentavalent atom is left with a net positive charge in the n
region near the junction.
•When the electron recombines with a hole in the p region, a trivalent
atom acquires a net negative charge.
•As a result, positive ions are found on the n side of the junction and
negative ions are found on the p side of the junction.
•The existence of the positive and negative ions are opposite sides
of the junction creates a barrier potential VB across the depletion
region.
•The barrier potential depends on temperature, but it is
approximately 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium at room
temperature.
uddin, EE, UPM
•Germanium diodes are rarely used, 0.7V is normally found in
practice and will be assumed in this text.
•When the area on both sides of the junction becomes essentially
depleted of any conduction depletion electrons or holes and is
known as the region.

uddin, EE, UPM

uddin, EE, UPM
 Summary of PN Junction
Metallurgical
Steady State
Na Junction Nd

- - - - - + + + + +
When no external source
P + + + + + is connected to the pn
n
- - - - -
+ + + + + junction, diffusion and
- - - - -
+ +
Space Charge
+ + +
drift balance each other
ionized
acceptors - - - - -
Region ionized out for both the holes
donors
E-Field and electrons
_ _
+ +
h+ drift == h+ diffusion e- diffusion == e- drift

Depletion Regionn: Also called the Space Charge Region. This region
includes the net positively and negatively charged regions. The space
charge region does not have any free carriers. The width of the space charge
region is denoted by W in pn junction formula’s.

Metallurgical Junction: The interface where the p- and n-type materials meet.

Na & Nd: Represent the amount of negative and positive doping in number of
carriers per centimeter cubed. Usually in the range of 1015 to 1020.

uddin, EE, UPM

 The Biased PN Junction
Metal
Contact
“Ohmic
_
Contact” +
(Rs~0)
Applied
P Electric Field n

_
+
Vapplied
The pn junction is considered biased when an external voltage is applied.
There are two types of biasing: Forward bias and Reverse bias.
These are described on then next slide.
uddin, EE, UPM
 DIODE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE
•Figure shown on next slide is a graph of diode current versus voltage.
•The upper right quadrant of the graph represents the forward-biased
condition.
•Essentially no forward current IF for forward voltages VF below the
barrier potential.
•As the forward voltage approaches the value of the barrier potential
(typically 0.7V for silicon and 0.3V for germanium) the current begins
to increase.
•Once the forward voltage reaches the barrier potential, the current
increases drastically and must be limited by a series resistor.
•The voltage across the forward-biased diode remains approximately
equal to the barrier potential but increases slightly with forward
current.
•For a forward-biased diode, this barrier voltage is often referred to as
a diode drop.
uddin, EE, UPM
uddin, EE, UPM
 FORWARD BIAS

•The term bias in electronics refers to a fixed DC voltage that

sets the operating conditions for a semiconductor device.
• Forward bias is the condition that permits current flow
through the pn junction.
•To forward bias a diode: the negative side of a dc source is
connected to the n region. The positive side of a dc source is
connected to the p region.
•When a semiconductor diode is forward bias, the anode is
more positive terminal and the cathode the more negative
terminal

uddin, EE, UPM

 REVERSE BIAS
•Reverse Bias is the bias condition that prevents current pass through
the pn junction.
•To reverse bias a diode: the negative side of a dc source is connected
to the p region. The positive side of a dc source is connected to the n
region.
•When a semiconductor diode is reverse bias, the is anode is more
negative terminal and the cathode the more positive terminal.

uddin, EE, UPM

 Forward Bias and Reverse Bias ckts

Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed
biased.

uddin, EE, UPM

PLOTTING THE CHARACTERISTIC CURVE ON AN
OSCILLOSCOPE

uddin, EE, UPM

 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

PN Junction Are used to allow current to flow in one direction

Diodes: while blocking current flow in the opposite
direction. The pn junction diode is the typical diode
that has been used in the previous circuits.

A K P n
Schematic Symbol for a PN Representative Structure for
Junction Diode a PN Junction Diode

Zener Diodes: Are specifically designed to operate under reverse

breakdown conditions. These diodes have a very
accurate and specific reverse breakdown voltage.

A K
Schematic Symbol for a
Zener Diode

uddin, EE, UPM

 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Schottky These diodes are designed to have a very fast

Diodes: switching time which makes them a great diode for
digital circuit applications. They are very common
in computers because of their ability to be switched
A K on and off so quickly.
Schematic Symbol for a
Schottky Diode

Shockley The Shockley diode is a four-layer diode while other

Diodes: diodes are normally made with only two layers.
These types of diodes are generally used to control
the average power delivered to a load.

A K
Schematic Symbol for a
four-layer Shockley Diode

uddin, EE, UPM

 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Light-Emitting Light-emitting diodes are designed with a very large

Diodes: bandgap so movement of carriers across their
depletion region emits photons of light energy.
Lower bandgap LEDs (Light-Emitting Diodes) emit
infrared radiation, while LEDs with higher bandgap
energy emit visible light. Many stop lights are now
starting to use LEDs because they are extremely
bright and last longer than regular bulbs for a
relatively low cost.

The arrows in the LED

A K representation indicate
emitted light.
Schematic Symbol for a
Light-Emitting Diode

uddin, EE, UPM

 Types of Diodes and Their Uses

Photodiodes: While LEDs emit light, Photodiodes are sensitive to

received light. They are constructed so their pn
junction can be exposed to the outside through a
clear window or lens.
A K In Photoconductive mode the saturation current
increases in proportion to the intensity of the
received light. This type of diode is used in CD
 players.
A K
In Photovoltaic mode, when the pn junction is
exposed to a certain wavelength of light, the diode
Schematic Symbols for generates voltage and can be used as an energy
Photodiodes
source. This type of diode is used in the
production of solar power.

uddin, EE, UPM