Modern Perspectives

 Neuroscience
How people and nonhumans functions biologically
Neuroscience and biological psychology have a
tremendous influence on our mental health. 
 Psychodynamic
Behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts
A person's behavior is influenced by their unconscious
drives.
Emotional and psychological problems such as
depression and anxiety are often rooted in conflicts
between the conscious and unconscious mind.
Personality development is heavily influenced by the
events of early childhood (Freud suggested that
personality was largely set in stone by the age of five).
People use defense mechanisms to protect
themselves from information contained in the
unconscious.
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
 Behavioral
› Focus on observable behavior that can be
measured directly
› theory of learning based on the idea that all
behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
› Conditioning occurs through 
interaction with the environment.
› Behaviorists believe that our responses to
environmental stimuli shape our actions.
Today’s Perspectives
 Cognitive
› How people think, understand, and know about
the world
› Cognitive psychology involves the study of
internal mental processes—all of the things that
go on inside your brain, including perception,
thinking, memory, attention, language, problem-
solving, and learning.
› While it is a relatively young 
branch of psychology, it has quickly grown to
become one of the most popular subfields.
 Humanistic
› Free will
› Natural tendency to be in control our own world
› Humanistic psychology is a perspective that
emphasizes looking at the whole individual and
stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy,
and self-actualization. 
› Rather than concentrating on dysfunction,
humanistic psychology strives to help people
fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being.
 CHAPTER TWO:
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

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 The Scientific Method
What is the scientific method?

What role do theories and hypotheses play in

psychological research?

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The Scientific Method
Scientific Method
Four main steps
1. Identifying questions
of interest
2. Formulating an
explanation
3. Carrying out research
designed to support or
refute the explanation
4. Communicating the
findings 8
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 Theories:
Specifying Broad Explanations
Theories
Broad explanations and predictions concerning
phenomena of interest

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 Hypotheses:
Crafting Testable Predictions
Hypothesis
Prediction stated in a way that allows it to be tested
Stems from theories

Operational Definition
Translation of a hypothesis into specific, testable procedures that can be measured and observed

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 Conducting Psychological Research

What research methods do psychologists use?

How do psychologists establish cause-and-effect

relationships in research studies?

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 Conducting Psychological
Research

Research
Systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new knowledge.
Descriptive Research
Systematic investigation of a person, group, or pattern of behavior.

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 Archival Research
Existing data is used to investigate a hypothesis:
College and university archives
Corporate archives
Government archives
Historical societies
Museums
Religious archives
Special collections
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 Naturalistic Observation
Investigator observes some naturally occurring
behavior and does not make a change in the
situation

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 Survey Research
A sample of people chosen to represent a
larger group of interest (a population) is asked
a series of questions about their behavior,
thoughts, or attitudes

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 The Case
An in-depth, intensive investigation of
Study
a single individual or a small group
Often includes psychological testing

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 Correlational Research
Two sets of variables are examined to determine whether they are associated, or
“correlated”
Variables
Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way
Correlation coefficient
Positive
Negative

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 Experimental Research
Researcher investigates the relationship between two or more
variables by deliberately changing one variable in a controlled
situation and observing the effects of that change on other
aspects of the situation
Experimental manipulation

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Experimental Research
Experimental Groups and Control Groups
Treatment
Manipulation implemented by the experimenter
Experimental group
Receives a treatment
Control group
Receives no treatment
Rules out other reasons for change

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 Experimental Research
Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent
The condition that is manipulated by an experimenter
Dependent
The variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of
changes caused by the experimenter’s manipulation of the independent
variable
Extraneous variables are all variables, which are not the independent
variable, but could affect the results of the experiment.There are two types:
Situational variables (controlled through standardisation) and Participant
variables (controlled through randomisation).

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 Experimental Research
Random Assignment of Participants
To make the experiment a valid test of the hypothesis

Random Assignment to Condition

Participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the
basis of chance

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 Experimental Research
Significant Outcome
Using statistical analysis, researchers can determine whether a numeric difference is a real
difference or is due merely to chance

Replication
Repeating experiment
Meta-analysis

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 Critical Research Issues
What major issues confront psychologists
conducting research?

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 The Ethics of Research
Informed Consent
Participants sign a document affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study:
awareness of what their participation will involve
what risks the experiment may hold
participation is purely voluntary
voluntarily terminate study at any time

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Honesty: 27
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate,
falsify, or misrepresent data.
Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,
personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research.
Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and
action.
Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the
work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities.
Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,
personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication.
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Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make
their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong
education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct
unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits;
respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.
 Should Animals Be Used in
Research?
Procedures that subject animals to distress are
permitted only when an alternative procedure is
unavailable and when the research is justified by its
prospective value
• Remember 3 R’s
1. Replace
2. Reduce
3. Refine

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Threats to Experimental Validity:
Avoiding Experimental Bias
Experimental Bias
Factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent
variable in an experiment
Experimenter expectations
Participant expectations
Placebo

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Explain what picture is depicting and how
do you feel looking at this specific 31

picture?

Happy
Sad
Hopeful
Loved
Optimistic
Dark
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