MAC Address

 A MAC address, or Media Access Control address, is

a 48- or 64-bit address associated with a network
adapter.
Network Layer
 Network layer is responsible for packet forwarding
including routing through intermediate routers.

 Functions of network layer includes:

 Connection model: Connectionless communication
 Host Addressing
 Message forwarding
Network Layer
What is a Router?

 Routers operate at the network layer (OSI Model's layer

3).
 A router is specialized computer connected to more than
one network running software that allows the router to
move data from one network to another.
Routers used in networks perform
the following functions:
 Restrict Broadcast to the LAN

 Act as a default gateway

 Move (route) data between networks

Route forwarding
Data Link Layer
 The goal of the data link layer is to provide reliable, efficient
communication between adjacent machines connected by a
single communication channel.
 Specifically:
-Sender checksums the frame and sends checksum
together with data. The checksum allows the receiver to
determine when a frame has been damaged in transit.
-Receiver recomputes the checksum and compares it
with the received value. If they differ, an error has occurred
and the frame is discarded.
Error Detection

 It is possible to develop data transmission methodologies

that give very high error detection and correction
performance.
 The only way to do error detection and correction is to
send extra data with each message.
Parity Bits

 In this technique, a redundant bit called a parity bit is

added to every data unit so that the total number of 1’s
in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even (or
odd).
 Bit added to each character to make all bits add up to an
even number (even parity) or odd number (odd parity)
 Good for detecting single-bit errors only
Parity Checking
 One of the oldest and simplest method, parity checking
adds 1 additional bit to each byte in the message. The
value of this parity bit is dependent on the number of 1’s
in each byte transmitted. Even parity causes the sum of
all bits (including the parity bit) to be even. Odd parity
causes the sum to be odd.
Parity Checking
Parity Checking
Sample 1.
Assume we are using even parity with 7-bit ASCII.
The letter V in 7-bit ASCII is encoded as 0110101.
Because there are four 1s (an even number), parity is set to
zero.
This would be transmitted as: 01101010.
Parity Checking
Sample 2
Assume we are using odd parity with 7-bit ASCII.
The letter W in 7-bit ASCII is encoded as 1010111 .
Because there are five 1s (an odd number), parity is set to zero.
This would be transmitted as: 10101110.
Two Dimensional Parity Check
 A better approach is the two dimensional parity check in
this method, a block of bits is organised in a table (rows
and columns). First we calculate the parity bit for each
data unit. Then we organise them into table. Then
calculate the parity hit for each column and create a new
row of 8 bits. They are the parity bits for the whole block.
The first parity bit in the fifth row is calculated based on
all first bits, the second parity bit is calculated based on
all second bits, and so on. We then attach the 8 parity
bits to the original data and sent them to the receiver.
Two Dimensional Parity Check
.
Check Sum
 Checksum is the mechanism for error detection which is also
based on the concept of redundancy.
Check sum Generator:
 In the sender, the check sum generator subdivides the data
unit into equal segments of n bits. These segments are added
using ones complement arithmetic in such a way that the total
is also n bits long.
 The receiver subdivides the data unit as above and adds all
segments and complements the result. the total value found
by adding the data segments and the check sum field should
be zero If the result is not zero, the packet contains an error
and the receiver rejects it.
Check Sum
Check Sum