Introduction to

PDH & SDH

Submitted by:-
Sumeet Bargoti
Transmission Types
• Asynchronous

• Plesiochronous

• Synchronous
PDH
Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy
 Plesiochoronous Signal

If two digital signals are plesiochoronous then

their transitions occur at “ almost” the same
rate, with any variation being constrained
within tight limits. Although this clocks are
extremely accurate, there is a difference
between one clock and the other.
The PDH Multiplexing

565 140 Mbit/s

Mbit/s
MUX & LTE

MUX & LTE

140-565

140-565
34 Mbit/s
The PDH Multiplexing
34-140 MUX

34-140 MUX
8 Mbit/s
8-34 MUX

8-34 MUX
2 Mbit/s 2-8 MUX
2-8 MUX
Limitation of the PDH Network
• Inability to identify individual channels in a higher
order bit stream.
• Insufficient capacity for network management.
• Most PDH network management is proprietary.
• There is no definition of bit rates greater than 140
Mbit/s
• There are different hierarchies in use around the
world.
SDH
Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy
Advantages of SDH
• Need for extensive network management
capability within the hierarchy.
• Standard interfaces between equipment
• Need for inter-working between north American
and European systems.
• Facilities to add or drop tributaries directly from a
high speed signal.
• Standardization of equipment management
process.
 COMPARISION OF SDH / PDH
PDH
The reference clock is not synchronized
throughout the network
Multiplexing / Demultiplexing
operations have to be performed from
one level to the next level step by step
Bit - by - bit stuff multiplexing
Limited amount of extra capacity for
user / management
Few services are available
SDH
The reference clock is synchronized
throughout the network.
The synchronous multiplexing results in
simple access to SDH system has
consistent frame structures throughout
the hierarchy.
Byte interleaved synchronous
multiplexing.
Sufficient number of OHBs is available
It will transport variety of services.
 TYPICAL LAYOUT OF SDH
LAYER
General view of Path Section designations

PDH
SDH # PDH
SDH Regenerator SDH
ATM
multiplexer Cross- multiplexer
ATM
IP SDH SDH SDH IP
connect

Regenerator Regenerator
Section Section

Multiplex Section Multiplex Section

Path
SDH Frame Structure
1 9 10 270
1
RSOH
3
POINTER
4
POH PAYLOAD CONTAINER

MSOH

PAYLOAD CONTAINER: 9 (Rows) * 260 (Columns) * 64Kbps = 149.76 Mbps

POH: 9 (Rows) * 1 (Column ) * 64 Kbps = 0.576 Mbps

RSOH: 3 (Rows) * 9 (Columns) * 64 Kbps = 1.728 Mbps

MSOH: 5 (Rows) * 9 (Columns) * 64 Kbps = 2.880 Mbps

SDH Hierarchy
 Multiplexing Structure

xN x1
STM-n
STM-n AUG
AUG AU-4
AU-4* VC-4
VC-4 C-4
C-4
x3 x1
TUG-3
TUG-3 TU-3
TU-3* VC-3
VC-3 44.736 Mbps
34.368 Mbps
x3
AU-3
AU-3* VC-3
VC-3 C-3
C-3

x7 x7 6.312 Mbps
* Pointer Processing x1
Multiplexing TUG-2
TUG-2 TU-2
TU-2* VC-2
VC-2 C-2
C-2
Aligning
Mapping
2.048 Mbps
x3
AUG Administrative Unit Group
AU Administrative Unit TU-12
TU-12* VC-12
VC-12 C-12
C-12
TUG Tributary Unit Group
TU Tributary Unit 1.544 Mbps
VC Virtual Container x4
C Container TU-11
TU-11* VC-11
VC-11 C-11
C-11
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Hierarchy
SDH Overheads
SDH Frame Structure
Synchronous Transport Module
Section Overhead
RSOH- Regenerator Section Overead
MSOH – Multiplex Section Overhead
POH – Path Overhead(VC-3/4)
POH – Lower Order Path Overhead (VC-11/12)
Pointers
The pointer technology provides a means to accommodate timing differences at
SDH networks. The pointer indicates the start of the payload within a STM-
1frame.
 Use Of Pointers
H1 & H2 = VC payload pointer
H1 Y Y H2 1 1 H3 H3 H3 H3 = Negative Justification
1 = All 1’s
Y = 1001SS11 (S bits
unspecified)

• It indicates the starting position of VC

• It is also used for justification
• AU pointer is also used for concatenation
• SDH provides payload pointers to permit differences in the phase and frequency
of the Virtual Containers (VC-n) with respect to the STM-N frame
• Lower-order pointers are also provided to permit phase differences between VC-
12/VC-2 and the higher-order VC-3/VC-4

To accomplish this, a process known as byte stuffing is used

Use Of Pointers

The payload within the STM-1 is not locked within a single frame, it can float
between two adjacent frames, as shown.
Use Of Pointers

Positive Pointer Justification

• When the data rate of the VC is too slow in relation to the rate of the
STM-1 frame, positive stuffing must occur. An additional byte is stuffed
in, allowing the alignment of the container to slip back in time. This is
known as positive stuffing

Negative Pointer Justification

• Conversely, when the data rate of the VC is too fast in relation to the rate
of the STM-1 frame, that negative stuffing must occur. Because the
alignment of the container advances in time, the payload capacity must be
moved forward. Thus, actual data is written in the H3 byte, the negative
stuff opportunity within the Overhead; this is known as negative stuffing
 Use Of Pointers

• The value of the pointer has a range of 0 to 782

For example,
• If the VC-4 Payload Pointer has a value of 0, then the VC-4 begins in the
byte adjacent to the H3 byte of the Overhead;

• If the Payload Pointer has a value of 87 (since each row of the payload has
86 positions), then the VC-4 begins in the byte adjacent to the K2 byte of
the overhead in the byte of the next row

• The pointer value, which is a binary number, is carried in bits 7

through 16 of the H1-H2 pointer word.
Use Of Pointers

The payload can float within the frame, so if the payload is being received slower
than the frame is being generated the payload can start later. The pointer is
updated to reflect the new position of the start of the payload.
Use Of Pointers

If the payload arrives faster than the new frame is generated it is not possible to just
move the payload forward as it will overwrite the last bytes of the previous frames
payload.
Use Of Pointers
Use Of Pointers

So the bytes that were received early are stored within the pointer itself and
the payload reconstructed at the far end
Use Of Pointers
Use Of Pointers
Use Of Pointers
Use Of Pointers
SYNCHRONIZATION
Synchronization

• Synchronization is the means of keeping all of the digital

equipment in your network operating at the same rate.
• In terms of synchronous networks (SDH/SONET), this
means, that all network elements must be oriented towards a
single clock. In SDH and SONET, higher bit rates and
synchronization are the major Advances compared to older
transmission technologies. This is the only way to assure
uniform standardization at all hierarchy levels and represents
a major challenge for system manufacturers and network
operators.
SYNCHRONIZATION Primary Reference
Clock ( PRC )
HIERARCHY Stratum 1

DIGITAL
EXCHANGE
Stratum 1

TRANSMISSION NETWORK

Digital Exchange Digital Exchange Digital Exchange

Stratum 2 Stratum 2 Stratum 2

Transmission Network

Digital Digital Digital Digital Digital

Exchange Exchange Exchange Exchange Exchange
Stratum 3 Stratum 3 Stratum 3 Stratum 3 Stratum 3
Clock Hierarchies
CLOCK SUPPLY HIERARCHY
STRUCTURE
SYNCHRONIZATION

• All network elements are synchronized to a central clock

• The central clock is generated by a high precision primary

clock(prc)-G.811 (10x10-11 )

• Clock is distributed throughout the network, this signal is

passed on to the Sub-ordinate Synchronization units (SSU)
and synchronous equipment clock (SEC) 
S1 Synchronization status message byte
(SSMB)
• Synchronization Status Messaging is the transmission of
synchronization quality messages between NEs.
• Bits 5 to 8 of this S1 byte are used to carry the synchronization
messages

0000 Quality unknown (existing sync. network)

0010 G.811 PRC (Primary Reference Clock)
0100 G.812 transit SSU-A (Synchronization Supply Unit - A)
1000 G.812 local SSU-B (Synchronization Supply Unit – B)
1011 G.813 Option 1 SEC (Synchronous Equipment Timing
Clock)
1111 Do not use for synchronization.
Errors & Alarms
Types of Alarms

• Equipment Alarms

• Facility Alarms
What is difference between a Defect and a
Failure?

• A defect is a detection of an alarm such as loss of signals, loss

of frames. AIS loss of excessive errors.

• A failure is a defect that persists beyond a maximum time

allocated. It is used to access to integrate Automatic Protection
Switching ( APS ).
Equipment Alarms

• Card Failure
• Card Mismatch
• Card Missing
• DCN Failure
• Fan Failed
• Disk 90% full
• Derived Voltage high/low
• I/p Voltage on PSU high/low
• LAN port down
• Memory usage exceeded
• SW download failed
• Temperature too high
Facility Alarms
• AIS E1/MS/P/STM
• LOS
• LOF
• OOF
• LOM
• LFD
• RDI MS/P
• REI MS/P
• RFI P
• LOP MS/P
• TIM RS/MS/P
• PLM P
• Signal Degrade
• Signal Fail
• Timing Reference Failed
Loss Of Signals ( LOS )

• It could be due to cut cable, excessive attenuation of the signal

or an equipment fault.

• The LOS state will clear when 2 consecutive framing patterns

are received and no LOS condition is detected.
RSOH Alarms

OOF

LOF

TIM(J0)

DCC Fail
Out of Frame (OOF )

• This situation occurs when 4, or in some implementations, 5

consecutive SDH frames are received with invalid framing
patterns(A1 and A2 bytes)

• The maximum time to detect OOF is therefore 625Ms

• The OOF clears when consecutive SDH frames are received

with valid framing patterns
Loss Of Frame ( LOF )

• The LOF occurs when the OOF state exists for a specified
time in msecs
• If OOFs are intermittent, the timer is not reset to zero until an
“in frame” state persists continuously for specified time in
msecs
• As the framing bytes are there in Regenerator section
overhead (RSOH) this alarm is sometimes known as RS-LOF
MSOH Alarms

AIS/RDI(K1,K2)

DCC Fail

Timing Reference Signal Fail(S1)

REI(M1)
MS-AIS

• This alarm is sent by a Regenerator Section Terminating

equipment (RSTE) to alert the downstream Multiplex section
Terminating Equipment (MSTE) of detected LOS or LOF
state
• It is indicated by an STM-N signal containing valid RSOH and
a scrambled all 1’s pattern in the rest of the frame
• The MS-AIS is detected by the MSTE when bits 6 to 8 of the
received k2 byte are set to “111” for 3 consecutive frames
• Removal is detected by the MSTE when bits 6 to 8 of the
received k2 byte are set with a pattern other than “111” in bits
6 to 8 of k2
AU-4 AIS

• This is sent by MSTE (Multiplex Section Terminating

Equipment) to alert the downstream higher order path
terminating equipment (HOPTE) of a detected LOP state or a
received AU path AIS
• The AU-4 path AIS is indicated by transmitting an all 1’s
pattern in the entire AU-4(I.e an all 1‘s pattern in H1,H2 and
H3 bytes pointer bytes plus all bytes of associated VC-4)
• Removal of AU-4 path AIS is detected when three consecutive
valid AU pointers are received with normal NDF’s
TU-12 AIS

• This is sent downstream to alert the Lower Order Path

Terminating Equipment (LOPTE) of a detected TU-12 LOP
state or a received TU-12 path AIS
• TU-12 path AIS is indicated by transmitting an all 1’s pattern
in the entire TU-12 (i.e. all 1’s in pointer bytes v1,v2,v3 and
v4 plus all bytes of associated VC)
• The TU-12 AIS detected by the LOPTE when all 1’s pattern
is received in bytes v1 and v2 or three consecutive multi-
frames.
• Removal of TU-12 is detected when three consecutive valid
TU-12 pointers are received with normal NDF’s
REI & RDI

• If network is failed due to fault in network connection itself,

breakup in path or fault in terminal equipment then RDI
(Remote Defect Indication) alarm will appear.
• If the received signal contains bit errors, the receiving network
element detects and reports BIP errors. Since this is not the
same as a complete failure of the connection, the alarm here is
referred to as an anomaly that is indicated back in the direction
of transmission. The return message is called a REI (Remote
Error Indication).
HOPOH

TIM(J)

PLM(C2)

REI,RDI,PLM,TIM,AIS,LOP(G1)

LOM(H4)

IEC,TC-REI/OEI/API/RDI/ODI(N1)
Loss Of Pointer (LOP )

• The LOP state occurs when ‘n’ consecutive invalid pointers

are received or ‘n’ New Data Flags (NDF) are received (other
than in a concatenation indicator)
• The LOP state is cleared when 3 equal valid pointers or 3
consecutive AIS indications are received. This alarm is very
rare in steady state because the pointer is either valid or is all
1s
• An AIS indication is all 1’s pattern in the pointer bytes.
Concatenation is indicated when the pointer bytes are set to
“1001XX1111111111” I.e NDF enabled(H1 and H2 bytes for
AU LOP; v1 and v2 bytes for TU LOP)
Loss Of Multiframe (LOM )

• The LOM state occurs on SDH LOVCs & SONET VTs.

• LOM is detected by checking the 7 & 8 bit of H4 Byte.

• LOM is recovered when an error free H4 sequence is found

in 4 consecutive VC – n frames.
LOPOH

REI,RDI,RFI,PLM,AIS,LOP(V5)

TIM/PLM(J2)

AIS,TC-REI/OEI/API/RDI/ODI(N2)
Some SDH alarms
SDH SDH
SDH
MUX Cable Cut MUX
REGEN

Loss
RFI STM-1 STM-1
of
Signal

SDH Excessive SDH

SDH
MUX Errors MUX
REGEN
Loss
MS-REI STM-1 STM-1
of
Frame

SDH SDH
SDH MUX
MUX
Cable Cut REGEN

Loss
RFI STM-1 of Z STM-1 MS-AIS
Signal
SDH Alarms
Protection Schemes
Types of Protection

• Linear Protection (1+1, 1:1, 1:N)

• Ring protection:

Unidirectional (UPSR/SNCP, MSP)

Bi-directional (2FMSSP, 4FMSSP)
1+1 Protection

• In 1+1 protection, for each of the working unit (Which can be either
unit or path) there will be a corresponding protection unit

• Both the units will be carrying data all the time ,the receiving end
will select the better of the two signals

• In case of failure, there will be a switching from working to

protection

• Even if the fault in the working unit is rectified ,there will be no

automatic switching from protection unit back to working unit

• This is called Non-Revertive type (because there is no automatic

reversion from working to protection even when the working unit is
functioning properly)
1+1 Protection
SDH Multiplexer Multiplex Section SDH Multiplexer

Working Section

Protection Section

SDH Multiplexer SDH Multiplexer

Working Section

Fault

Protection Section
1:1 Protection (Dedicated Protection)

• Even in 1:1 protection, for each of the working unit (Which can be either
unit or path) there will be a corresponding protection unit

• Only working unit will be carrying data all the time, in case of the failure
in the protection unit there will be a switching to the protection unit

• Once the fault in the working unit is rectified there will be a switching
from protection unit back to the working unit

• This is called Reversion type (because there is an automatic reversion from

protection back to the working once the working unit is restored)
1: N Protection

• 1:N protection is very similar to 1:1 protection, except the fact

that for N working units there will be one protection unit

• This is also called revertive protection, because as soon as the

fault in the working unit is rectified there will be an automatic
reversion from working to protection
Unidirectional Switch and Bidirectional Switch
Types of Ring System
Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring (UPSR)
Unidirectional Path-Switched Ring (UPSR)

• This protection switching mechanism functions as follows

(Figure A-3):
• Network elements B and E transmit on both fibers. Traffic
thus flows simultaneously on the working line and on the
protection line.
• In the event of a fault (e.g. interruption between network
elements C and D), the receiver of element E is switched over
to fiber 2 (red fiber in Figure A-3, right), where it finds a
connection immediately.
• A path-switched ring is distinguished by its simple switch-
over mechanism.
• No knowledge of the ring configuration is required.
Unidirectional line-switched ring (ULSR)
Unidirectional line-switched ring (ULSR)

• This protection switching mechanism functions as follows

(Figure A-4):
• Network elements B and E transmit on fiber 1 (working line).
• An interruption is assumed between network elements C and
D. The E –> B direction is not affected. An alternate route
must be found for the A –> B direction, however. The working
line (red fiber) is therefore looped through to the protection
line (blue fiber) in network elements C and D, while the
remaining NEs are switched to “Through“ mode.
• The APS sequence is controlled by means of the K bytes.
• This protection mechanism is known as “line switched”.
• A knowledge of the ring configuration is essential.
Two-fiber bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR)
Two-fiber bidirectional line-switched ring (BLSR)

• This protection switching mechanism functions as follows (Figure

A-5):
• The connections between the individual network elements in this
structure are bidirectional. Each fiber has 50% protection capacity.
• An interruption is assumed between network elements C and D.
An alternate route must be found for both transmission directions.
The working lines in network element C (red fiber) and network
element D (green fiber) are therefore looped through to the
protection line (blue fiber), while the remaining NEs are switched
to “Through“ mode.
• The APS sequence is controlled by means of the K1and K2 bytes
of the SOH/TOH.
• This switching mechanism is complex and involves the complete
ring. A knowledge of the ring configuration is therefore essential.
Questions ?
Thank You