Quantitative Research

Methodologies
Correlational Research
Designs

Reported By:
Romina L. Fajardo
MAPA – RMD211 Research & Development
Professional Lecturer
DR. MAGNO QUENDANGAN
Date:
March 20, 2021
 Correlational Research

Definition Purpose

Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages

Correlational Research
01 DEFINITION
Correlational research
involves collecting data to 02
determine whether and to
what degree a relation Correlational research
exists between two or seeks to establish a relation/
more variables. The
association/ correlation
degree of relation is
between two or more
expressed as a
correlation coefficient. variable that do not readily
lend themselves to
experimental manipulation.
 Correlational Research
01 PURPOSE
Correlational research is used to find out
whether one or more variables can predict
other variables

02
Correlational research allows us to find out
what variables may be related. However,
the fact that two things are related or
correlated does not mean there is causal
relationship.
 Characteristics

 Correlational Research is non-experimental

Correlational research is non-experimental as it does not involve
manipulating variables using a scientific methodology in order to
agree or disagree with a hypothesis.
 Characteristics

 Correlational Research is Dynamic

Statistical patterns between 2 variables that result from
correlational research are ever-changing. The correlation
between 2 variables changes on a daily basis and such, it cannot
be used as a fixed data for further research. 
 Characteristics

 Correlational Research is Backward-looking

Correlational research doesn't take the future into consideration as it
only observes and measures the recent historical relationship that
exists between 2 variables. In this sense, the statistical pattern
resulting from correlational research is backward-looking and can
seize to exist at any point, going forward.
Explanatory studies
Help explain important in human
behaviors
Researchers who conduct often
investigate a number of variables
they believe are related to a more
complex variable
For example:
The relationship found between
frequency of smoking incidence of
lung cancer. There are other
factors; lifestyle, environment and
genetic predisposition
Prediction Studies
Predict likely the outcomes
Researchers used two variables;
predictor variable and criterion
variable
For example:
High school grades are related to
college grades. High school grades
can be used to predict the student
college grades.
 Advantages
Through correlational research, you can easily determine the
statistical relationship between 2 variables.

In cases where carrying out experimental research is unethical,

correlational research  can be used to determine the relationship
between 2 variables. For example, when studying humans, carrying
out an experiment can be seen as unsafe or unethical; hence,
choosing correlational research would be the best option. 
 Advantages

Carrying out correlational research is less time-consuming and less

expensive than experimental research. This becomes a strong
advantage when working with a minimum of researchers and funding or
when keeping the number of variables in a study very low. 

Correlational research allows the researcher to carry out shallow data

gathering using different methods such as a short survey. A short survey
does not require the researcher to personally administer it so this allows
the researcher to work with a few people. 
 Disadvantages
Correlational research is limiting in nature as it can only be used to
determine the statistical relationship between 2 variables. It cannot be
used to establish a relationship between more than 2 variables. 

It does not account for cause and effect between 2 variables as it

doesn't highlight which of the 2 variables is responsible for the
statistical pattern that is observed. For example, finding that education
correlates positively with vegetarianism doesn't explain whether being
educated leads to becoming a vegetarian or whether vegetarianism
leads to more education.
 Disadvantages
Reasons for either can be assumed, but until more research is done,
causation can't be determined. Also, a third, unknown variable might be
causing both. For instance, living in the state of Detroit can lead to both
education and vegetarianism.

Correlational research depends on past statistical patterns to determine

the relationship between variables. As such, its data cannot be fully
depended on for further research. 
 Steps in Conducting a Correlational Study
.

Problem Determining design

Selection and procedures

Contents Contents

Choosing a Collecting and

sample analyzing data

Selecting or choosing Interpreting

proper instrument results
 Problem Selection

A study related to requiring the identification of the direction

and degree of association between two sets of scores
It is useful for identifying the types of association
Need to explain in complex relationships of multiple factors
When researchers use research questions
 Choosing a Sample

Randomly select the individual/participants to generalize the

result
The group needs to be of adequate size for use of correlational
statistics, such as N=30
Selecting or choosing proper instrument

Identify two or more characteristics which will be compared of

a group, measures of variables in the research questions need
to be identified
Instrument that measure the variables need to be obtained
Instruments should have proven validity and reliability
Determining design and procedures

To administer the instruments and collect at least two sets of

data from each individuals
Researchers will be overly assured about threats of collecting
data sets
Determining design and procedures

To administer the instruments and collect at least two sets of

data from each individuals
Researchers will be overly assured about threats of collecting
data sets
 Collecting and analyzing data

For data analyzing:

Pearson’s correlation coefficient
Partial correlation coefficient
Multiple regression coefficient
 Interpreting results

In this step the results of this study are discussing the

magnitude and the direction of correlation coefficient
Interpretation will includes the impact of intervening variables
in a correlational study
Regression weight of variables in a regression analysis and
developing a predictive equation for use in a predictive study
Criteria for Evaluating Correlational Designs
01
Adequacy of sampling for hypothesis testing
02 Display the results in matrices and graphs
03
Assessment of the magnitude of the relationship based on the
coefficient of determination
04
Form of relationships and appropriate statistics
05
Identify predictor and criterion variables
06 Predicted the direction of relationship among variables
based on observed data
07
Statistical procedures
 Quantitative Research
Methodologies
Causal-Comparative
Designs
( Ex-Post-Facto)
Reported By:
Romina L. Fajardo
MAPA – RMD211 Research & Development
Professional Lecturer
DR.MAGNO QUENDANGAN
Date:
March 13, 2021
Causal-Comparative Designs
01 DEFINITION
• Also refers to Ex post
facto research which 02
means after the fact. It
refers to the study of • Unable to control or
cause-effect manipulate the causes or
relationship that already independent variables
exists, without any and simply tries to explore
control or change in “how” and “why” they are
cause or effect. related to the effects.
Causal-Comparative Designs
01 DEFINITION
• Basic design of this
study is to select a 02
group that has
independent variable • Casual-comparative
and then select another research attempts to
group of subjects that explore cause and effect
doesn’t have relationships where
independent variable. causes already exist and
The two groups are cannot be manipulated.
then compared on
dependent variable.
Causal-Comparative Designs
01 DEFINITION
• Casual-comparative
research study takes a 02
form, when the effect of
independent variable • It attempts to identify a
on dependent variable causative relationship
for subjects, with the between an independent
understanding that variable and a dependent
independent variable is variable.
not under experimental
control.
 Characteristics

Attempts to identify cause and effect relationships.

Involve two or more group variables.
Involve making comparison.
Individuals are not randomly selected and assigned to two or
more groups.
Cannot manipulate the independent variables.
Less costly and time consuming.
Steps in Conducting a Causal-Comparative Designs
.

Select Select
a Topic Participants

Contents Contents

Review the Select Instruments to

Literature Measure Variables &
Collecting Data

Develop a Research Analyze and

Hypothesis Interpret Results
 Select a Topic

Identify & define a specific phenomenon of interest and consider

the possible consequences for the phenomenon. This method
involves the selection of two groups that differ on a certain
variable of interest. 
 Review of Literature

Assess the literature in order to identify the independent and

dependent variables for the study. This process lets you figure out
external variables that contribute to a cause-effect relationship.
 Develop a research hypothesis

Assess the literature in order to identify the independent and

dependent variables for the study. This process lets you figure out
external variables that contribute to a cause-effect relationship.
 Select a participants

Choose groups that differ in regards to the independent variable.

This enables you to control external variables and reduce their
impact. Here, you can use the matching technique to find groups
that differ mainly by the presence of the independent variable. 
 Select Instruments to Measure Variables &
Collecting Data

In this type of research, the researcher need not incorporate a

treatment protocol. It is a matter of gathering data from surveys,
interviews, etc. that allows comparisons to be made between the
groups.
 Analyze and Interpret Results
Here, data is reported as a frequency or mean for each group
using descriptive statistics. This is followed by determining the
significant mean difference between the groups using inferential
statistics (T-test, Chi-square test). 

In this step carefully state that the independent variable causes

the dependent variable. However, due to the presence of external
variables and lack of randomization in participant selection, it is
probably ideal to state that the results showcase a possible effect
or cause.  
Criteria for Evaluating Causal- Comparative Designs
01
The presumed causal condition should have already occurred
02 The primary purpose of the research should be to investigate
causal relations when an experiment is not possible
03
Potential extraneous variables should be recognized and
considered
04
Differences between groups being compared should be
controlled
05
  Causal conclusions should be made with caution