Makhluk Hidup dan

Ekosistem Alami
Populasi dan Komunitas Makhluk Hidup

Level Organisasi
 The Nature of Ecology
 Ecosystem organization
 Organisms
 Populations
 Communities
 Ecosystems
 Biosphere
 What is a Community and a
Population?
• A population is a group
• A community is individuals that belong
assemblage of different to the same species
populations that live and live in the same
together in a defined area
area
 Principles of Ecological Factors
 Abiotic factors  Law of tolerance
 Biotic factors  Limiting factors
 Demographics
Density and distribution
• Population density – pattern of dispersal of individuals
across an area of interest
• Resources – abiotic (nonliving) and biotic (living)
components of environment
• Limiting factors – environmental aspects that determine
where an organism lives
 Population Growth and Environmental Impact
Human population growth pressures physical environment, need for
space and raw materials is going up

People in developed nations have a greater demand for raw materials and
generally more wasteful than underdeveloped countries
 The Biotic Components of Ecosystems

 Producers
(autotrophs)

 Photosynthesis
 Consumers
(heterotrophs)

 Aerobic
respiration

 Decomposers
 Trophic Levels
 Primary consumer (herbivore)

 Secondary consumer (carnivore)

 Tertiary consumer

 Omnivore

 Detritivores and scavengers

 Decomposers
 Natural Capital: Sustaining Life of
Earth
• One-way flow
of energy from Sun
• Cycling of
crucial elements
• Gravity
Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems
Photosynthesis and Respiration
Photosynthesis: production of carbohydrate from water and
carbon dioxide, using light energy
H20 + CO2 +light energy CHOH + O2
 Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems

Respiration is process of "burning" this stored chemical energy,

basically through oxidation, for maintaining plant metabolism.
During plant respiration, carbohydrates combine with oxygen and
is reduced to carbon dioxide and water, and heat.
Connections: Food Webs and Energy Flow in
Ecosystems
 Food chains  Food webs
Food chains
Food Webs
 Decomposition
 Most material = plant
 Involves:

• Release of chemical energy

• Mineralization (= organic --> inorganic)

• Note immobilization = reverse of mineralization

• Net mineralization rate = mineralization -
immobilization
 Ecological Pyramids
 Pyramid of
Fig. 4-20 p. 79
energy flow
 Ecological
efficiency
 Pyramid of
biomass
 Pyramid of
numbers
Connections: Matter Cycling in Ecosystems

 Biogeochemical cycles

 Hydrologic cycle (H2O)

 Atmospheric cycles (C, N)

 Sedimentary cycles (P, S)

Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
Hydrologic (Water) Cycle
 Human Influence on the Water
Cycle
 Water withdraw from lakes and streams
 Clear vegetation
 Construct impervious surfaces
 Fill wetlands
 Modify water quality by adding nutrients
The Carbon Cycle (Terrestrial)
The Carbon Cycle
The Carbon Cycle (Aquatic)
The Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle
The Phosphorus Cycle
The phosphorus cycle
The Sulfur
Cycle
How Do Ecologists Learn About Ecosystems?

 Field research
 Remote sensing
 Geographic information systems (GIS)
 Laboratory research
 Systems analysis
GIS and Systems Analysis
Ecosystem Services
and Sustainability
 Human impacts on the environment
Global warming
 Use of machinery by humans seems to be increasing atmospheric CO2
levels. Carbon dioxide prevents heat energy from escaping, causes slight
world wide temperature increases

Rising water temperatures

causes coral bleaching
 Human impacts on the environment
Deforestation
 Caused by demand for wood products, need for space,
farmland, housing, roads
 Deforestation causes habitat fragmentation

 Animals and plants are forced into confined areas

 Human impacts on the environment
Ozone depletion
 Caused by aerosol chemicals called chloroflurocarbons (CFCs)
commonly used as coolants
 Escape into atmosphere, reacts with ozone (O3, a protective
atmospheric layer)
 UV rays penetrate
atmosphere and
cause harm to many
organisms
 Human impacts on the environment

Fishing activities
 Demand for fish and shellfish
 Fishing is harmful to the environment in many ways
 Bycatch, gear losses, trawling scours sea bottom
 Human impacts on the environment
Invasive species
 Typically introduced by people accidentally or intentionally

 Can cause problems if no natural enemies are present

 Islands and other confined ecosystems are at risk

Cane toad was introduced to

Australia to control cane beetles,
pest insects that destroy sugar cane
crops

Toads did not control cane beetles,

instead they took over and cane
toads are unusually hardy
 Human impacts on the environment

Exotic pet trade

 Capture and sell wild animals from exotic locations

 Wealthy buyers and collectors desire obscure animals

 Animals removed from their
habitat causes an imbalance in
ecosystem
Berbagagai Bentuk Ekosistem Alami
 BIOME : A group of ecosystems that have the
same climate and similar dominant
communities
 Biodiversity
 Genetic diversity

 Species diversity

 Ecological diversity

 Functional diversity
Habitats: Tundra
Habitats: Taiga
Habitats: Temperate forest
Habitats: Tropical rainforest
Habitats: Temperate grassland
Habitats: Savanna
Habitats: Desert
 Habitats: Wetlands

Includes permanent and temporary aquatic environments

Which has more cultural
diversity?

A B
Which has more biodiversity?

A B
Which has more biodiversity?

A B
 Biodiversity
• Variety of living things,
number of kinds
• Ecological diversity
– different habitats, niches,
species interactions
• Species diversity
– different kinds of
organisms, relationships
among species
• Genetic diversity
– different genes &
combinations of genes

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 Benefits of Biodiversity
• Ecosystem functions
• Ecosystem services
• Cleaning water,
habitat & breeding
areas for wildlife
• Aesthetic and
cultural benefits
 Benefits of Biodiversity
• New food sources
– Grains, fruits, vegetables, meat, fish
 Benefits of Biodiversity
• Medicines
• Plants

• Jellyfish & sea

anemones
• Nudibranchs
 Biodiversity
 Where is the biodiversity
 Everywhere
 Every continent and habitat
has unique life forms
 Concentrated in the
tropics
 Panama: > 500 species of
breeding birds
 Arctic: 50-100 species
 Dense concentrations

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 Threats to Biodiversity
 Extinction and
population reductions
 Hunting and
overharvesting
 Tiger
 Dodo
 Whales
 Sharks
 Habitat loss

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 Threats to Biodiversity
 Extinction and
population reductions
 Pollution
 Climate change
 Invasive species

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 Protecting Biodiversity
 How can we protect
biodiversity
 Stop overharvesting
 Sustainable yield
 Hunting & fishing laws
(every state ?)
 in developing nations ?
 Refuges, parks,
preserves
 Endangered Species Act
 Protecting Biodiversity
 Refuges, parks, preserves
 How big should refuges be?
 Where should they be?

 McArthur & Wilson “Theory of Island

Biogeography”
 colonization rate
 extinction rate (local)

 predicts number of species

 Importance of the environment
Biodiversity = Cast of characters
 Many different types of organisms

 Organisms depend upon one another

 Photoautotrophs
plants, algae
 Chemoheterotrophs d
herbivores, carnivores
 Importance of the environment

Food chain
 Photoautotrophs obtain
energy from sunlight
 Energy passed on to
primary consumers and then
secondary consumers
Each level up receives a lesser
amount of energy
 Importance of the environment
Natural resources
 Non-renewable and renewable resources

 Non-renewable includes fossil fuels (petroleum, coal)

 Renewable includes animals, plants, water, wind, etc.

 But, even renewable resources can run out and there are
trade offs or consequences to using certain resources
 Importance of the environment

Natural resources
 Agriculture has many purposes such as food, textiles, wood,
paper
 Importance of the environment

Natural resources
 Advances in biochemistry have allowed us to make
synthetic chemicals such as antibiotics, glues, or use
organisms to restore environments (bioremediation)

Bacteria can be genetically

altered to consume crude
oil and other contaminants
 Importance of the environment

Natural resources
 Renewable energy sources include wind power, geothermal
energy, ocean currents
 Energy Flow
 Energy always flows in one direction
through an ecosystem – from autotrophs to
heterotrophs
 Autotrophs
 PRODUCERS
 organisms that use energy from the
environment to change CO2 into organic
compounds (food)

Two types of producers:

 photosynthesizers – use energy from the sun
(plants, algae, bacteria)
 chemosynthesizers – use energy from chemical
reactions inside Earth (bacteria)
 Heterotrophs
 CONSUMERS
 organisms that rely on other organisms for
their energy and food supply
 Types of Consumers
 herbivore – plant eater
 carnivore – meat eater
 omnivore – eat both plants and animals
 detritivore – eat dead plants and animals
 decomposer – breakdown organic matter into
inorganic compounds like CO2, H20, NO3
 Feeding Relationships
food chain: a series of steps in which
organisms transfer energy by eating
and being eaten
producer → herbivore → carnivore

food web: a linking of all the food

chains in an ecosystem
BENTUK ASOSIASI KEHIDUPAN
 Mutualisme
 Komensalisme
 Parasitisme
Ecological Biogeography
Interactions Among Species
• Competition: species compete for a common resource
• Predation: one species feeds on another
• Parasitism: one species gains nutrition from another, usually invades or attaches
to the body of the host
• Herbivory: animals graze on plants (a type of predation)
• Allelopathy: a plant species produces toxins that inhibit others
• Symbiosis: positive interaction between species that is beneficial to at least one
of the species and does not harm the other
• Commensalism: one species benefits, the other is unaffected
• Mutualism: one or both species cannot survive alone
Mutualisme
Komensalisme
Parasitisme