Evolution II

30 Evolution II 30.
1 Mechanism of evolution
30 Evolution II
1
30 Evolution II
Think about…
30.1Mechanism of evolution
30.2Speciation
Recall Think about…
Concept map
2
30 Evolution II
The largest living tortoise

Galapagos
Islands
South
America
native to
Galapagos tortoise
3
30 Evolution II

On different islands
 different kinds of Galapagos tortoises
4
30 Evolution II

saddle-shaped shell
limited ground
vegetation
5
30 Evolution II

saddle-shaped shell
allows neck to move

upwards
tortoise can feed on limited ground

tall vegetation vegetation
6
30 Evolution II

dome-shaped shell
plentiful ground
vegetation
7
30 Evolution II

dome-shaped shell
no need to move the

neck upwards to feed plentiful ground
on tall vegetation vegetation
8
30 Evolution II

Online video:Evo
lution of the gian
t tortoises
Some scientists believe

that they have evolved
from a common ancestor South
living in the mainland of America
South America.
9
30 Evolution II
How might different kinds of

Galapagos tortoises arise from a
common ancestor?
10
30 Evolution II
When do scientists consider

different groups of organisms to
be different species?
11
30 Evolution II 30.1 Mechanism of evolution
30.1 Mechanism of evolution

How does evolution take place?
Lamarck’s theory
(Lamarckism 拉馬克學說 )
Darwin’s theory
(Darwinism 達爾文主義 )
12
A Lamarckism
• proposed in 1809 by:
Jean Baptiste
Lamarck
13
A Lamarckism
He suggested that:
1 environmental changes created needs that
caused organisms to modify their existing
structures to meet these needs.
14
A Lamarckism
He suggested that:
existing structures
repeatedly not used
used
well
degenerate
developed
15
A Lamarckism
He suggested that:
2 acquired characters ( 後天獲得的性狀 )
would be passed on to later generations.
16
A Lamarckism
Evolution of the giraffe’s neck:
short-necked
ancestors
17
A Lamarckism
Environmental changes created needs for
organisms to develop new features.
stretched their
necks to get
leaves on trees no grass
18
A Lamarckism
Environmental changes created needs for
organisms to develop new features.
neck became
longer due to
repeated use
acquired character
passed on to offspring
19
A Lamarckism
After many generations…
extremely
long neck
20
A Lamarckism
• August Weismann did an experiment
to test Lamarck’s idea
tails cut
× ×
mating offspring
with tails
21
A Lamarckism
tails cut again
× ×
offspring
with tails
22
A Lamarckism
process repeated
× ×
new generations were
born with complete tails
23
A Lamarckism
• showed that acquired characters were
NOT passed on to later generations
disproved Lamarckism
24
B Darwinism Online video:D

arwin’s story
• proposed by Charles Darwin and

Alfred Russel Wallace in 1858
• also known as the theory
of natural selection
( 自然選擇 )
Charles Darwin
25
B Darwinism
• Darwin’s ideas came from a visit to
the Galapagos Islands
South
America
• finches on the islands
were very similar to
those on the mainland
of South America
26
B Darwinism
• but the beaks were different
 adapted to different food sources
nuts large flying cacti insect

insects insects larvae
27
B Darwinism
• Darwin suggested that:
all originated from a single species

on the mainland of South America
28
B Darwinism
• after the voyage, Darwin worked on his idea
of natural selection for 20 years
published a book titled

On the Origin of Species
in 1859
29
B Darwinism
• came from deductions which were made
from a series of observations
30
B Darwinism
Observation 1:
Organisms can
produce large
numbers of
offspring, but the
population remains
fairly stable.
31
B Darwinism
Observation 1: Deduction:
Organisms can Many fail to survive
produce large and reproduce due to
numbers of competition for limited
offspring, but the resources
population remains  struggle for
fairly stable. existence
( 生存競爭 )
32
B Darwinism
Observation 2:
There is variation
among individuals of
the same species.
33
B Darwinism
There is variation Individuals with
among individuals of favourable characters
the same species. are better adapted to
the environment
 higher chance of
survival
 survival of the
fittest ( 適者生存 )
34
B Darwinism
Observation 3:
Some favourable
characters are
passed on to
offspring.
35
B Darwinism
Some favourable Better adapted
characters are individuals pass their
passed on to favourable characters
offspring. on to offspring.
36
B Darwinism
Some favourable Accumulation of
characters are favourable characters
passed on to over many generations
offspring.  individuals quite
different from their
ancestor
 evolution
37
B Darwinism
Animation 30.1
Evolution of the giraffe’s neck:
ancestor of
giraffes
38
B Darwinism
Variation in neck length:
long neck
short neck
39
B Darwinism
when weather
became dry
no grass grew
40
B Darwinism
short-necked giraffes
could not eat leaves
from treetops
died
41
B Darwinism
long-necked giraffes could

eat leaves from treetops
survived
42
B Darwinism
long-necked
 favourable
character for survival
 passed on to offspring
43
B Darwinism
After many generations…
long-necked giraffes
predominated in the
population
44
B Darwinism
Different
ancestor modern giraffes
45
B Darwinism
Evolution
ancestor modern giraffes
46
Natural selection in action:

i) Peppered moths ( 斑點蛾 )
ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests
iii)Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
47
i) Peppered moths
Variations exist among moths:
black peppered
moth (mutant 突變
型)
white peppered moth
48
i) Peppered moths
Before industrialization
easily seen by birds
camouflaged ( 偽
裝)
49
i) Peppered moths
Before industrialization
eaten by birds
50
i) Peppered moths
During industrialization
tree trunks were

darkened
51
i) Peppered moths
camouflaged
52
i) Peppered moths
eaten by birds
53
i) Peppered moths
higher chance of
survival and
reproduction
54
i) Peppered moths
higher chance of
survival and
reproduction
increase in
population in
polluted areas
55

• DDT, an insecticide, was used in the
1940s to kill mosquitoes
• but many mosquitoes became
resistant to DDT within a few years
Why?
Online video:
Historical clips
on DDT
56

Genetic variations exist among
mosquitoes:
resistant
to DDT
non-resistant
to DDT
57

When DDT was used:
58

When DDT was used:
most non-resistant
mosquitoes died
59

When DDT was used:
higher chance of
survival and
reproduction
60

When DDT was used:
61

Repeated use of DDT:
proportion of
DDT-resistant
mosquitoes 
DDT becomes
less effective
62
iii) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Genetic variations exist among bacteria:
resistant
non-resistant
63

When antibiotic is used:
died
64

When antibiotic is used:
higher chance of survival
and reproduction
65

Indiscriminate use of antibiotic:
proportion of resistant bacteria 
66

Example: Staphylococcus aureus
( 金黃葡萄球菌 )
• some strains resistant
to penicillin and
methicillin
Online video:
Safe use of
antibiotics (×10 000)
67
C Neo-Darwinism
• with more knowledge in genetics and
related areas of biology,
e.g. mutations cause variations
• Darwinism is refined as
neo-Darwinism ( 新達爾文主
義)
68
1 Charles Darwin put forward the

theory of natural selection
to explain how evolution takes
place.
69
1 The theory suggests that

variations exist among individuals
within a species. The individuals
compete with one another for
limited resources (i.e. struggle
for existence ).
70
1 When the environment changes,

individuals with favourable
characters have a higher chance
of survival and (i.e.
reproduction
survival
). of the fittest
71
1 They pass the favourable

characters on to their offspring .
Over many generations, the action
of natural selection leads to the
evolution of new species.
72
2 Lamarck’s theory Darwin’s theory

1 Environmental 1 Variations
change creates already exist
a needfor within species.
organisms to
change.
73

2 In order to survive, 2 The environment
individuals can selects those
develop new individuals with
features in
favourable
response to the
characters to
environmental
change. survive, and
eliminates others.
74

3 Acquired 3 Individuals with
characters are favourable
passed on to later characters have a
generations, higher chance of
making them quite survival and
different from their reproduction .
ancestor.
75

3 Acquired 3 The offspring
characters are inherit these
passed on to later characters, making
generations, them quite different
making them quite from their ancestor.
different from their
ancestor.
76
3 Genetic variations exist among

insect pests in their resistance to the
insecticide. When the insecticide is
applied, the insecticide-resistant insect
pests have a higher chance of survival
and reproduction.
77
3 When the insecticide is used

repeatedly, the proportion of the
resistant insect pests in the population
increases in subsequent
generations.
78
3 As a result, the insecticide becomes

less effective in killing insect pests.
79
4 Genetic variations exist among

bacteria in their resistance to a certain
antibiotic. When the antibiotic is used,
the antibiotic-resistant bacteria have
a higher chance of survival and
reproduction.
80
4 With the indiscriminate use of the

antibiotic, the proportion of the
resistant bacteria in the population
increases in subsequent generations.
81
30 Evolution II 30.2 Speciation
30.2 Speciation
• the process of forming new species
• in the 1940s…
I put forward
a hypothesis to
explain speciation.
Ernst Mayr
82
1 A single species of tortoise that can

interbreed freely. Animation 30.2
same
species
forest
83
2
mountain range forms
84
2 Two groups are isolated ( 隔離 ).
group A group B
85
2 They cannot meet and interbreed.
gene flow stops
group A
 group B
86
2 Mutations within each group produce

different genetic variations.
group A
 group B
87
2 Climate starts to change.
wetter drier
group A group B
88
2 Environmental conditions become different.
wetter drier
group A group B
89
3 Natural selection acts on the two groups

in different ways.
evolve independently
group A group B
90
4 After many generations…
large genetic differences
group A group B
91
4 After many generations…
cannot interbreed to
large genetic
produce differences
fertile offspring
group A group B
92
4 They become two different species.
species
group AA group BB
species
93
Isolation mechanisms
Geographic isolation ( 地理隔離 )
is one of the mechanisms.
Organisms are separated by
physical barriers.
mountain
ranges deserts
oceans rivers
94
Geographic isolation
• example: squirrels in Grand Canyon
with a
white tail
without a the Colorado

white tail River
95
a river formed ancestral population

of the squirrels
96
two groups of squirrels could not
meet and interbreed
 evolved independently
97
two distinct species formed
98
Limpets live on rocky shores. They attach

themselves firmly to rocks to avoid being washed
away by wave action. Limpets have a cone-shaped
shell.
limpet
99
The height-length ratio of the shell varies with the

degree of exposure to wave action.
limpet
heigh
t
length
100
A student measures the height-length ratios of the

shells of two groups of limpets. These two groups
are living on two different shores, X and Y, in the
same area.
limpet
heigh
t
length
101
limpet
The mean values of the
ratios are shown in the
table below. heigh
length t
Mean value of the height-length

Shore
ratio of the shell
X 0.42
Y 0.24
102
a Which shore (X or Y) is more likely to be

exposed to stronger wave action? Explain with
reference to the concept of natural selection.
(7
marks)
Mean value of the height-length
Shore
ratio of the shell
X 0.42
Y 0.24
103
Answer
a Shore Y (1)
Compared with the limpets on shore X, the
limpets on shore Y have a smaller height-length
ratio, showing that their shells are flatter. (1)
104
Answer
a Limpets with a flatter shell are better adapted to

the environment (1)
as this character reduces the chance of them
being washed away by wave action. (1)
105
Answer
a Thus, limpets with a flatter shell have a higher

chance of survival. (1)
They breed and pass this character on to their
offspring. (1)
Over many generations, they predominate in the
population on shore Y. (1)
106
b Limpets are slow-moving. Those living on

shore X are unlikely to mate with those living
on shore Y. However, they are not considered
as geographically isolated. Suggest one
possible reason for this.
(Hint: Limpets spend a short period of their life
as free-swimming larvae before settling on
rock.) (3
marks)
107
Answer
b The limpet larvae may be carried by ocean

currents from shore X to shore Y, or the other
way round. (1)
The larvae settle on the shores and grow to
maturity and interbreed. (1)
Thus, there is still gene flow between the two
groups of limpets. (1)
108
Answer
b The limpet larvae may be carried by ocean

Different groups of organisms in
currents from shore X to shore Y, or the other
a
way round. population
(1) must be reproductively
isolated (i.e. they can no longer
The larvaeinterbreed)
settle on thebefore
shores evolving
and grow to
into
maturity and interbreed. (1)
new species.
Thus, there is still gene flow between the two
groups of limpets. (1)
109
1 Speciation is the process by

which new species form.
110
2 Speciation occurs when a

population separates into small
groups. The groups are isolated
from one another (e.g. by a
physical barrier) so that they
can / cannot interbreed.
111
2 Each group may then evolve

independently by
natural selection.
112
2 After many generations, genetic

variations may accumulate to a
point where individuals of different
isolated groups can no longer
interbreed to produce fertile
offspring.
113
2 The isolated groups become

different species.
114
30 Evolution II
1 How might different kinds of

Galapagos tortoises arise from a
common ancestor?
115
30 Evolution II
Individuals from the mainland of

South America arrived in the different
islands of Galapagos.
They were geographically isolated
from one another by the ocean.
116
30 Evolution II
Mutations took place in different

groups of tortoises which produced
offspring with different genetic
variations.
117
30 Evolution II
Individuals, which were better adapted

to the new environment, had a higher
chance of survival and reproduction.
They passed the favourable characters
on to their offspring.
Over many generations, different kinds
of tortoises with different characters
formed.
118
30 Evolution II
2 When do scientists consider different

groups of organisms to be different
species?
119
30 Evolution II
When different groups of organisms

cannot interbreed to produce fertile
offspring, they are considered as
different species.
120
30 Evolution II
Evolution
can be explained by
theory of natural
proposed selection
acts on
by
Darwin and individuals
Wallace with variations
121
30 Evolution II
individuals with
variations
may be
individuals with individuals without

favourable characters favourable characters
122
30 Evolution II
individuals with individuals without

favourable characters favourable characters
have have
higher chance of survival lower chance of survival
and reproduction and reproduction
leads to leads to
population of individuals population of individuals
with favourable without favourable
characters increases characters decreases
123
30 Evolution II
individuals with
variations
may become
isolated
populations
may give rise to
new species
124

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30 Evolution II 30.

The largest living tortoise

The largest living tortoise

The largest living tortoise

The largest living tortoise

allows neck to move

tortoise can feed on limited ground

The largest living tortoise

The largest living tortoise

no need to move the

The largest living tortoise

Some scientists believe

How might different kinds of

When do scientists consider

30.1 Mechanism of evolution

B Darwinism Online video:D

• proposed by Charles Darwin and

nuts large flying cacti insect

all originated from a single species

published a book titled

Evolution of the giraffe’s neck:

long-necked giraffes could

ancestor modern giraffes

ancestor modern giraffes

Natural selection in action:

tree trunks were

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

ii) Insecticide-resistant insect pests

iii) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

iii) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

iii) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

iii) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

iii) Antibiotic-resistant bacteria

1 Charles Darwin put forward the

1 The theory suggests that

1 When the environment changes,

1 They pass the favourable

2 Lamarck’s theory Darwin’s theory

2 Lamarck’s theory Darwin’s theory

2 Lamarck’s theory Darwin’s theory

2 Lamarck’s theory Darwin’s theory

3 Genetic variations exist among

3 When the insecticide is used

3 As a result, the insecticide becomes

4 Genetic variations exist among

4 With the indiscriminate use of the

1 A single species of tortoise that can

2 Two groups are isolated ( 隔離 ).

2 They cannot meet and interbreed.

gene flow stops

2 Mutations within each group produce

2 Climate starts to change.