4.

3 Covalent Structures
IB Chemistry SL
Mrs. Page
 Essential Idea
Lewis (electron dot) structures show the electron
domains in the valence shell and are used to predict
molecular shape.

Nature of Science
Scientists use models as representatives of the real
world – the development of the model of molecular
shapes (VSEPR) to explain observable properties.
 Understandings
1. Lewis (electron dot) structures show all the valence electrons in a
covalently bonded species
2. The “octet rule” refers to the tendency of atoms to gain a valence
shell with a total of eight electrons.
3. Some atoms, like Be and B, might form stable compounds with
incomplete octets of electrons.
4. Resonance structures occur when there is more than one
possible position for a double bond in a molecule.
5. Shapes of species are determined by the repulsion of electron
pairs according to the valence shell electron pair repulsion
(VSEPR) theory.
6. Carbon and silicon form covalent network (giant covalent)
structures.
 Application & Skills
1. Deduction of Lewis (electron dot) structures of molecules and ions
showing all valence electrons for up to four electron pairs on each
atom.
2. The use of VSEPR theory to predict the electron domain
geometry and the molecular geometry for species with two, three,
and four electron domains.
3. Prediction of bond angles from molecular geometry and presence
of non-bonding pairs of electrons
4. Prediction of molecular polarity from bond polarity and molecular
geometry
5. Deduction of resonance structures, examples include but are not
limited to C6H6CO32- and O3
6. Explanation of the properties of covalent networks (giant covalent)
compounds in terms of their structures.
 U1 &2: LEWIS STRUCTURES
Multiple ways to show the same molecule

XX

H N H H N H
H H
H N H H N H
H H
 U1& 2: Lewis Structures & Ions
 We can use Lewis structures of ionic
compounds
 Must use brackets around cation and anion
(electrostatic force bonds ions)

NH4Cl
NH NO
4 3
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/
U1 & 2: Rules for Lewis Structures
 Add up the total number of valence electrons in the molecule.
 Draw the skeletal structure.
 Use a line between each element to symbolize an electron pair.
 Distribute the remaining electrons around the elements in pairs to
form octets. (Hydrogen can only ever have 2 electrons.)
 If you do not have enough to form octets, make double or triple
bonds.
 Ions must have square brackets around them with the charge notated
in the top right hand corner.
 To be a correct Lewis structure, ALL electrons must be shown.
U1 &2: Lewis Structures
 Tell us about covalent bonds
 Bonding pairs vs. Lone pairs
 Single, double or triple bonds
 They do not tell us about the
actual shape of the molecules
 U5: VSEPR
• Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion theory.
• States that pairs of valence electrons repel each other
and are therefore arranged as far apart from each other
as possible.
• So far we have dealt with structural formulas which
only show the types of atoms, bonds and lone pairs of
electrons. They do not show the shape of the
molecule.
• VSEPR is a model that allows us to look at shapes of
molecules
 U5: VSEPR – Basic Shape
• To determine the shape you must look at the electron
domains (areas where there are pairs of electrons)
 U5: VSEPR – Basic Shape
• Linear: central atom with two electron domains (no
lone pairs)
• Bond angle 180°
• Ex: BeCl2, CO2

https://www.boundless.com/
 U5: VSEPR – Basic Shape
• Trigonal Planar: central atom with three electron
domains (no lone pairs)
• Bond angle 120°
• Ex: BeF3, NO3-

https://www.boundless.com/
 U5: VSEPR – Basic Shape
• Tetrahedral: central atom has four electron domains
(no lone pairs)
• Bond Angle 109.5°
• Ex: CH4, [NH4]+

Solid Wedge = bond in front

Dashed Wedge = bond toward back
https://www.boundless.com/
 Effect of Lone Pairs
✘ Molecular Geometry gives the shape of the molecule
✘ Electron Domain Geometry is based on the number of
electron domains
✘ Electron domains can be bonded pairs or lone pairs
✘ Lone pair electrons occupy more space than bonding
pairs and therefore alter the bond angles from molecular
geometry
✘ The more lone pairs, the greater the repulsion and
therefore the greater the impact on the bond angle
U5: VSEPR – V-Shaped (Bent)
• e- Geometry: Trigonal Planar
• Molecular Geometry: (V-shaped or bent) : central
atom has three electron domains (1 lone pair)
• Bond angle is <120°
• Ex: SO2, SF2, [NO2]-
U5: VSEPR – Trigonal Pyramidal
• e- Geometry: Tetrahedral
• Molecular Geometry: Trigonal Pyramidal central
atom has four electron domains (1 lone pair)
• Bond angle is <109.5°
• Ex: NF3, NH3, [H3O]+, [SO3]2-
U5: VSEPR – Tetrahedral Bent
• e- Geometry: Tetrahedral
• Molecular Geometry: Bent (V-Shaped) central atom
has four electron domains (2 lone pairs)
• Bond angle is <109.5°
• Ex: H2O, [SO3]2-
 Bonding
Lone Pairs on e- Domain Molecular
Groups on Bond Angle Example
Central Atom Geometry Geometry
Central Atom

2 0 Linear Linear 180

3 0 Trigonal Planar Trigonal Planar 120

4 0 Tetrahedral Tetrahedral 109.5

Bent (V-
2 1 Trigonal Planar shaped) <120

Trigonal
3 1 Tetrahedral <109.5
Pyramidal

Bent (V-
2 2 Tetrahedral <109.5
shaped)
Other Effects on Bond Angles
• Bond angle depends on the electron domains but is not
the exact same measure for all molecules with the same
domains
• Bond angle is effected by the type of atoms, electronegativity
differences, and multiple bonds as well
• You do not need to know EXACT bond angles however
should be able to predict which molecular and which electron
domain geometry
• NOTE: You should also be able to predict geometries of
oxoanions (polyatomic ions containing oxygen)
Using Lewis Structures; Predict the molecular geometry, the
electron domain geometry and bond angles for the following

• CCl4
• NH4+ Check answers in
• NF3 book, pp. 110-114
• SF2
• [NO2]-
• [SO3]2-
 QUIZ (15 minutes)
Using Lewis Structures (2); Predict the molecular
geometry (1), the electron domain geometry (1)
and bond angles (1) for the following (15 marks
total)

• XeO3
• CH3+
• ClO4-
U3:Exceptions to Octet Rule
• Hydrogen will never have more than 2 electrons.
• Some elements such as Be and B may have an
incomplete octet when bonding
• Be has only 4 electrons in BeCl2 bond
• Boron only has 6 valence electrons in BF3
• Some elements like S and P can have expanded octets
which hold more than 8 electrons.
U3:Exceptions to Octet Rule
• Coordinate covalent bonds are formed when both
electrons originate from the same atom.
• An arrow is used to denote the direction in a
coordinate covalent bond showing the atom from
which both electrons originated.
 Your Turn
Draw the Lewis structures showing the
coordinate (dative) bond
1. CO3 2-
2. CO
3. NO3 -
U4 & A5: Resonance Structures
 Resonance is a concept used to describe the structures when
there are multiple ways to depict the same molecule.
 If you can put a double bond in more than one position, you
will be expected to draw the resonance structures.
 The electrons are actually delocalized in the areas of the
double bonds and are spread out equally among all bonding
positions.
 Bond strength and length are in between that of single and
double bonds.
U4 & A5: Resonance Structures
 Resonance structures allow us to depict all the possible
positions of the double bonds.
 The true structure, however, is an intermediate form
known as a resonance hybrid.
 Double arrows are placed between all resonance
structures.

https://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/final-exam-prep/deck/2821905
A5:Resonance & Benzene

http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/organic-chemistry/benzene.html
A5:Resonance & Carbonate

http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/
 A5:Resonance & Ozone

http://www.mikeblaber.org/oldwine/chm1045/notes/Bonding/Resonan/Bond07.htm
 A5: Resonance Practice
Draw all resonance structures for the following polyatomic
molecules and ions. Be sure to draw polyatomic ions in
brackets and include the charge on each.
1. Formate ion, CHO2-
2. Cyclobutadiene, C4H4
3. Ozone, O3
4. Sulfur Dioxide, SO2
5. Carbonate ion, CO32-
6. Chlorate ion, ClO3-
 A4: Molecular Polarity

• Bond polarity refers to a specific bond within a

compound
• Molecular polarity is the polarity of the
molecule as a whole
• We can have a non-polar molecule even if the
molecule contains polar bonds
 A4: Molecular Polarity
Steps to deduce molecular polarity:
• Determine molecular geometry with VSEPR
• Determine polarity of each bond using
electronegative values ∆p, show with vectors
and dipole moment - +
• Add vectors to determine if there is a net
dipole moment, . If so the molecule is
polar
 A4: Molecular Polarity
Try it:
• SF2
• BF3 Check solutions in
book pp. 115-116
• CO2
• NH3
• H2O
• CS2
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
• Allotropes: different structures of the same element
• Carbon has 4 allotropes; graphite, diamond, graphene, and
C60 fullerene
• 3 of these allotropes, graphite, diamonds and graphene are
examples of covalent network solids – also known as
giant 3-D covalent structures
• C60 fullerene is a molecule
* Another example of a covalent network solid is quartz
(SiO2)
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
Properties of Covalent Network Solids
• High melting points (>1000°C) due to MANY strong
covalent bonds
• Generally poor conductors (except graphite and
graphene)
• Usually insoluble in most substances
• Generally very hard (except graphite – sheets
slide)
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
Graphite
• Each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms in a trigonal
planar geometry – these covalent bonds are strong
• Carbon atoms form layers of hexagonal rings
• Layers connected by weak intermolecular forces called
London forces
• Electrons delocalized allowing conduction
• Often used as a lubricant because layers can slide past each
other due to weak London forces
• Pencil lead
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
Diamonds
• Each carbon is bonded to 4 other carbon atoms in a
tetrahedral geometry
• Form a lattice structure
• One of hardest substance on earth due to bonding and
interlocking tetrahedrons
• Very high melting & boiling point (strong bonds)
• No delocalized electrons (no conduction)
• Insoluble
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
Graphene
• Each carbon is bonded to 3 other carbon atoms
• Form a lattice structure that is densely packed
• Atoms arranged hexagonally and one atom thick
• One of thinnest and strongest materials known
• Excellent conductor
• Transparent
• Flexible
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
C60 fullerene (buckyballs)
• 60 carbon atoms
• 20 hexagonal surfaces
• 12 pentagonal surfaces
• Each carbon bonded to 3 other carbons
• A molecule (not a covalent network solid)
• Black solids
• Insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvants
• Not conductive
 U6 & A6: Covalent Networks
Silicon Dioxide (Quartz)
• Another example of a covalent network solid
• Each silicon bonded to 4 oxygens
• Each oxygen bonded to 2 silicon atoms
• High melting and boiling points (strong covalent bonds)
• Not conductive
 EXTRA PRACTICE Complete the following:
Formula Lewis Molecular e- Domain Bond Angle Polar
Structure Geometry Geometry Molecule?
(Show
Resonance
Structures)
SO3          

BeCl2          

PO4 3-          

SO2          

N3 -          

XeO3          

NH2 -          

NO2 -          

ClO2 -          

H3 O +          

NH3