INTRODUCTION TO MEDICINE

By
Gashaw Walle (BSc., MSc.)

Contact:-
gashawwalle01@gmail.com/Gashaw_walle@yahoo.com
+251962936245
Out line
• Introduction to anatomy
• Introduction to embryology
• Introduction to histology
objectives
• Discuss the history of ANATOMY
• Illustrate and elaborate branches and
approaches of anatomy
• List and define anatomical terms
HUMAN ANATOMY
• is the study of the structure of the human body
• morphology - the science of form
• field of serious intellectual investigation for at
least 2300 years
• The word “Anatomy” - Greek term (“Anatome)”
▫ Ana = apart or up
▫ Tome = cutting
To cut apart, divide or dissect
(derived from the Latin term dissecare)
Old Vs Modern Definition

• (Ana = apart & tome = cutting), meaning cutting

apart
• Present definition: the study of normal
structures of the body and their relationships
History of human Anatomy
• Was formerly studied in Egypt(500B.C.)
• Hippocrates -(460-377 B.C) Considered as
Father of medicine and founder of anatomy
• Aristotle - (384-322 B.C) First person to use
the term “Anatome”
• Galen -a philosopher born in 130 B.C Used
dissection of human and animal bodies
• Andreas Vesalius (1514 - 1564 A.D.)
- marked new era in the history of medicine
- the study of anatomy became an objective discipline
based on direct observations as well as scientific
principles
- recognized anatomy as the firm foundation of the
whole art of medicine
Leonardo da Vinci and Michel Angelo(1514-1564)
- accurately display, portray & describe the parts of the
human body and thus to revise,
• amend and correct many galenic concepts
DIVISIONS OF ANATOMY
• General anatomy - Study of gross and
macroscopic structures as well as of the
composition of the body
• Special anatomy - Certain definitive organs or
groups of organs involved in the performance of
a special function
• Gross (macroscopic) anatomy - Human
body/its parts without microscope It is studied
by means of dissection of the body
 • Microscopic anatomy Study of cells, tissues
and organs by the help of a light microscope
• Regional or Topographic anatomy
Anatomy of certain related parts or divisions of
body
• Systemic anatomy is the study of the body’s
organ systems that work together to carry out
complex functions
• Descriptive anatomy
Deals with the description of the physical
structure of man
 • Comparative anatomy
Comparative study of the structures with regard
to homologous organs or parts
• Applied anatomy
Practical application of anatomical knowledge to
the diagnosis and treatment of diseases
• Ultrastructural anatomy
Ultramicroscopic study of structures too small to
be seen with a light microscope
 • Developmental anatomy
Structural changes of an individual from
fertilization to adulthood
Includes :
Embryology
Fetology
Post- natal development
• Pathological anatomy
Gross and microscopic study of organs and tissues
removed for biopsy or during postmortem exam
Study of structural changes caused by diseases
 • Radiological anatomy
Study of body using radiographs/imaging
• Surgical anatomy
Applied anatomy in reference to surgical diagnosis
and treatment
• Physiological (functional) anatomy
anatomy studied in relation to function
Anatomical Position
• •is the standard reference position of the body
used to describe the position & relations of
various anatomical structures
• All descriptions in human anatomy are
expressed in relation to the anatomical position
• By using this any part of the body can be related
to any other part
In Anatomical position:
 Regarded erect
 Eyes looking forward to the horizon
 Arms by the sides
 Palms directed forward
Lower limbs together with feet directed
anteriorly
 the toes directed anteriorly
Body Planes and
Sections
Three planes of the body
 Vertical plane
Sagittal plane
Frontal/Coronal plane
 Horizontal (transverse) plane
the vertical and horizontal planes are
perpendicular to each other
Oblique plane
 Sagittal Plane
Directed from front to back (antero-posterior)
Divide the body into right and left parts
Parallel to sagittal suture of skull
Median sagittal (midsagittal, medianplane or
plane of symmetry):- divides the body into equal
right & left sides
 Parasagittal planes:- planes parallel to it and
divides the body (organ) into unequal right & left
sides
Coronal (Frontal) Plane
• It divides the body longitudinally into anterior &
posterior parts
• Situated in the direction of the coronal suture of the
skull.
Horizontal Plane
• • a transverse plane which runs horizontally at a
right angle to the vertical plane
• • It divides the body into upper & lower parts
Oblique Plane
• • Passes through the body at an angle b/n
transverse, sagittal or coronal plane
Slices of the body along
these planes
Sections correspondingly
named as:
 Sagittal section
 Median section
 Frontal or coronal
section
 Horizontal,
transverse or cross section
 Oblique section
Approaches to Study Anatomy

• Anatomy is the setting (structure) in which the

events (functions) of life occur
• •Although the primary concern of anatomy is
structure, true understanding results when
structure & function are considered together
Modern anatomy is functional anatomy
 Observation & visualization are the primary
techniques a student should use to learn anatomy
 An in-depth understanding of anatomy is
fundamental to the practice of clinical medicine
• The three main approaches to study anatomy
systemic, regional & clinical (applied)
1. Systemic anatomy
About 11 specific systems are functioning in the
human body
 Integumentary System  Respiratory System
 Skeletal System  Digestive System
 Muscular System  Urinary System
 Nervous System  Reproductive System
 Endocrine System
 Cardiovascular System
 Lymphatic And Immune System
 2. Regional Anatomy
• Deals several systems located in specific region of
the body
• Six regions
 limbs (upper and lower)
 back
 thorax
 abdomen
 pelvis and perineum
 head and neck
Used mostly in DR & useful for physicians
and surgeons
 3. Clinical (Applied) Anatomy
• •emphasizes aspects of bodily structure &
function important in the practice of medicine
stresses clinical application
important in solving clinical problems
• •Practical application of anatomical knowledge to
the diagnosis & treatment ofdisease
Other Fields of Anatomy

• Surgical anatomy:- is the study of anatomy in

connection with surgical operations & surgical
procedures (e.g. anatomy of surgical incisions,
anatomy of surgical exposures…..)
Radiological anatomy:- is the study of anatomy
using radiological techniques
e.g. X-rays, CT scan, ultrasound & MRI
To demonstrate the bones or some internal
organs as the heart, lungs, kidneys, stomach &
intestine
Axes of Movements
 Axes of Movements
Movements of the body are based on three main
axes, which are perpendicular to each other
 The axes include:
1. Longitudinal or vertical axis
2. Sagittal axis
3. Transverse or horizontal axis
 Longitudinal or Vertical Axis
Runs from the center of the head to the sole of
the foot in longitudinal direction
 Perpendicular to the floor
 Medial (internal) rotation
 Movements Lateral (external) rotation
 Supination
 Pronation
Sagittal Axis
Runs from anterior to posterior aspect of the
body or vice versa
Parallel to the floor
▫ Abduction
▫ Adduction
 Transverse or Horizontal Axis
Runs from right to left or from left to right
Parallel to the floor
Flexion
Extension
Circumduction
Movement to take place in all the three axes
ANATOMICAL
TERMS
Anatomical terms are mainly relative types
☞ Most of these terms are derived from either
Latin or Greek
☞ Greek origin e.g arthros=joint,
myo=muscle, neuro=nerve etc……
☞Latin origin e.g caput=head,
caudal=tail etc…
☞Terms are divided into:- term of position
and term of movements
Terms of Position/Relationship
Anterior & Posterior
• Anterior: a position on the front of the body or near to it.
• Posterior: a position on the back of the body or near to it
Medial, Lateral & Intermediate
• •Medial: nearer to the median plane
• •Lateral: away form the median plane
• •Intermediate: a position b/n medial point & lateral
point
 Superior & Inferior
• Superior: a position near towards the highest
point in the body.
• Inferior: a position nearer to the lower end of the
body.
Proximal & Distal
• Proximal: a position nearer to a
• reference point.
• Distal: a position away from a reference point
 Superficial & Deep
- Superficial: a position nearer to the surface of
the body.
- Deep: a position away from the surface of the
body, i.e. towards the inside
Internal & External
- Internal: nearer to the cavity of the body
- External: away from cavity of the body
Middle:- refers to a position b/n two points
• – b/n anterior & posterior, b/n superior &
• inferior and b/n internal & external
 Ipsilateral & Contralateral
- Ipsilateral: refers to same side of the body
- Contralateral: refers to the opposite side of the
body
Bilateral & Unilateral
- Bilateral: paired structures having right & left
members
- Unilateral: occurring on one side only
Supination & Pronation
- Supination: facing palm of hand forward
- Pronation: facing palm of hand backward
 Terms of Movement
• • Terms which describe the direction of
movements that take place at joints
Three types: angular, circular & special movements
Angular Movements
Flexion & Extension
Flexion: bending & decreasing angle b/n
Extension: straightening & increasing angle b/n
• Hyperextension: extension of a limb or part
beyond the normal limit
 Adduction & Abduction
- Adduction: movement toward median plane
- Abduction: movement away from median plane
Circular Movements
• Rotation
- Medial rotation: rotation toward median
plane
- Lateral rotation: rotation away from median
plane
- Circumduction: is a circular movement with
combination of flexion, extension, abduction, &
adduction movements.
Special Movements
Opposition & Reposition
- Opposition: approximation of the thumb to the
other fingers
- Reposition: the movement from position of
opposition back to its anatomical position
Inversion & Eversion
• Eversion: moves the sole of the foot away from
the median plane
• Inversion: moves the sole of the foot toward the
median plane (facing the sole medially)
 Protrusion & Retrusion
• Protrusion (protraction): is a movement anteriorly
as in protruding the mandible, lips, or tongue
• Retrusion (retraction): is a movement posteriorly,
as in retruding the mandible, lips, or tongue
Elevation & Depression
- Elevation: raises or moves a part superiorly
- Depression: lowers or moves a part inferiorly
1. Cranial - toward the head
2. Caudal - toward the tail
3. Medial - toward the middle
4. Lateral - toward/from the side
5. Proximal - toward the attachment
of a limb
6. Distal - toward the finger/toes
7. Superior - above
8. Inferior - below
9. Anterior - toward/from the front
10. Posterior - toward the back
11. Peripheral - toward the surface
12. Palmer - toward/on the palm of
the hand
13. Plantar - toward/on the sole of foot
Anatomical Variations

• • Human diversity is expressed in anatomical

variations
• • Books describe the most common patterns.
However, occasionally a particular structure
demonstrates so much variation within the normal
range
• – Physical, sexual, racial, genetic….
• • A wide variation is found in the size, shape & form
of attachments of muscles, bones & patterns of
branching of veins, arteries & nerves
Individual variation must be considered in
physical examination, diagnosis & treatment.
Embryology
• From a single cell to a baby in 9 months
• investigations of
▫ molecular
▫ cellular
▫ structural
• factors contributing to the formation of an
organism
better understanding of embryology has resulted
in new techniques for prenatal
diagnoses
Treatments
 therapeutic procedures
to circumvent problems with infertility
mechanisms to prevent birth defects, cause of
infant mortality
Gametogenesis
• Development begins with fertilization
PRIMORDIAL GERM CELLS
Gametes are derived from (PGCs)
PGCs formed in the epiblast during 2ndwk and
move to the wall of the yolk sac
4thwk, cells begin to migrate from the yolk sac to
developing gonads,
They arrive by the end of 5thwk
Mitotic division
In preparation for fertilization, germ cells undergo
gametogenesis, includes:
Meiosis, to reduce the number of chromosomes
Cytodifferentiation to complete maturation
 Mitosis
• is the process one cell divides, giving rise to two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to the
parent cell
Prophase:- chromosomes begin to coil, contract, and
condense
 Each chromosome now consists of two parallel
subunits, chromatids,
 joined at a narrow region common to both called the
centromere
Metaphase:- chromosomes line up at equator
doubled structure is clearly visible
attached by microtubules, forming the mitotic
spindle
Anaphase:- centromere of each chromosome
divides
 followed by migration of chromatids to opposite
poles of the spindle
Telophase:- chromosomes uncoil and lengthen,
the nuclear envelope reforms, and the cytoplasm
divides
 Meiosis
• cell division that takes place in the germ cells to
generate male and female gametes

• meiosis I and meiosis II, to reduce the number of

chromosomes to the haploid number of 23

• Crossovers critical events in meiosis I, are the

interchange of chromatid segments between
paired homologous chromosomes
As a result of meiotic divisions:
• Genetic variability is enhanced through
• crossover, which redistributes genetic material
• random distribution of homologous
chromosomes to the daughter cells
• Each germ cell contains a haploid number of
chromosomes

Birth Defects and Spontaneous Abortions??

Oogenesis
• oogonia differentiate into mature oocytes
• PGCs oogonia
• end of 3rd mo., they are arranged in clusters
surrounded by flat epithelial cells
• majority of oogonia continue to divide by mitosis,
but some of them arrest their cell division in
prophase of meiosis I

Primary oocytes
• All primary oocytes have started prophase of
meiosis I

• diplotene stage, a resting stage during

prophase that is characterized by a lacy network
of chromatin
• do not finish their first meiotic division before
puberty
• produced by OMI secreted by follicular cells
• number of primary oocytes at birth is estimated
to vary from 600,000 to 800,000
40,000
• most oocytes become atretic

• primary oocytes are vulnerable to damage

as they age
• Each month, 15 to 20 follicles selected & begin to
mature, passing through three stages:

I. primary or preantral
II. secondary or antral,
III. preovulatory (Graafian follicle)
primary or preantral

 primary oocyte begins to grow

 surrounding follicular cells change from flat to
cuboidal and
proliferate to produce a stratified epithelium of
granulosa cells
secondary / Antral
• Granulosa cells rest on a basement membrane
separating them from surrounding stromal cells
that form the theca folliculi
• Granulosa cells and the oocyte secrete
glycoproteins
zona pellucida
As follicles continue to grow:
Theca folliculi organize into layers
▫ theca interna = secretory cells
▫ theca externa = fibrous capsule
finger-like processes of the follicular cells
interdigitate with microvilli of the plasma
membrane of the oocyte
 fluid-filled spaces appear between granulosa cells.
 Coalescence of these spaces forms the antrum,

secondary (vesicular) follicle

Pre-ovulatory (Graafian follicle)
• When the secondary follicle is mature, a surge in
LH induces the pre-ovulatory growth phase
 Meiosis I is completed

resulting in formation of two daughter cells of

unequal size
• Secondary oocyte receives most of the cytoplasm
• first polar body, receives practically none( small)
• The cell then enters meiosis II but arrests in
metaphase approximately 3 hours before
ovulation
• Meiosis II is completed only if the oocyte is
fertilized
• The first polar body may undergo a second
division
Spermatogenesis
 begins at puberty
 At birth, germ cells in
the male infant can be
recognized in the sex
cords of the testis as
large, pale cells
surrounded by
supporting cells
• Type A cells undergo a limited number of mitotic
divisions to form clones of cells
• type B spermatogonia, which then divide to form
primary spermatocytes
• Primary spermatocytes then enter a prolonged
prophase (22 days) completion of meiosis I

spermatogonia and spermatids remain

embedded in deep recesses of Sertoli cells
throughout their development
Leydig cells
Spermatogenesis - transformation of spermatids into
spermatozoa
changes include :-
o formation of the acrosome
o condensation of the nucleus
o formation of neck, middle piece, and tail
o shedding of most of the cytoplasm
FERTILIZATION
• Process by which male and female gametes fuse,
at the ampulla
• Spermatozoa are not able to fertilize the oocyte
immediately upon arrival
must undergo
 capacitation
acrosome reaction
• Capacitation :- is a period of conditioning in
the female reproductive tract lasts 7 hours

glycoprotein coat and seminal plasma proteins

are removed from acrosomal region

Only capacitated sperm can pass through the

corona cells and undergo the acrosome reaction.
Acrosome reaction
• occurs after binding to the zona pellucida, is
induced by zona proteins
• acrosin- and trypsin-like substances
Phases of fertilization
Include:-
I. penetration of the corona radiata
II. penetration of the zona pellucida
III. fusion of the oocyte and sperm cell
membranes
1. Penetration of the Corona Radiata

• Of the 200 to 300 million, only 300 to 500 reach

the site of fertilization.
• Only one fertilizes others aid the fertilizing
sperm in penetrating the barriers protecting the
female gamete
• Capacitated sperm pass freely through corona
cells
Penetration of the Zona Pellucida
• binding and the acrosome reaction are mediated
by the ligand ZP3, a zona protein
• Release of acrosin allows sperm to penetrate the
zona
• Permeability of the zona pellucida changes when
the head of the sperm comes in contact with the
oocyte surface
• release of lysosomal enzymes from cortical
granules lining the plasma membrane of the
oocyte
zona reaction
Fusion of the Oocyte and Sperm Cell
Membranes
Adhesion of sperm to the oocyte is mediated by
integrins on the oocyte and their ligands,
disintegrins, on sperm

Head and tail of the spermatozoon enter the

cytoplasm of the oocyte, but the plasma
membrane is left behind
The egg responds in three ways

A. Cortical and zona reactions

 Oocyte membrane becomes impenetrable to
other spermatozoa
Zona pellucida alters its structure and
composition to prevent sperm binding and
penetration
 polyspermy
B. Resumption of the second meiotic
division
 definitive oocyte
 second polar body
 arrange in vesicular nucleus known as the female
pronucleus
 C. Metabolic activation of the egg
 Activation encompasses the initial cellular and
molecular events associated with early
embryogenesis
 Sperm nucleus becomes swollen and forms the
male pronucleus
 tail detaches and degenerates
 they come into close contact and lose their
nuclear envelopes
The main results of fertilization are :
• Restoration of the diploid number of
chromosomes
• Determination of the sex of the new
individual.
• Initiation of cleavage.
CLEAVAGE
• Once the zygote has reached the two-cell stage, it
undergoes mitotic divisions
• cells become smaller with each cleavage division,
are known as blastomeres
• compaction, segregates inner cells, which
communicate extensively by gap junctions, from
outer cells
• inner cell mass gives rise to tissues of the embryo
proper, and
• outer cell mass forms the trophoblast, which
later contributes to the placenta
BLASTOCYST FORMATION
• When morula enters the uterine cavity, fluid
begins to penetrate through the zona pellucida
• Embryoblast, are at one pole, and trophoblast,
flatten and form the epithelial wall of the
blastocyst
• trophoblastic cells over the embryoblast pole
begin to penetrate between the epithelial cells of
the uterine mucosa on about the sixth day
• implantation is the result of mutual trophoblastic
and endometrial action
Bilaminar Germ Disc Formation
DAY 8
• blastocyst is partially embedded in the endometrial
stroma
• In the area over the embryoblast, the trophoblast
has differentiated into two layers
Cytotrophoblast
syncytiotrophoblast
• Cells of the embryoblast also differentiate into two
layers
hypoblast layer
epiblast layer

Together, the layers form a flat disc

At the same time, a small cavity appears
within the epiblast
amniotic cavity
• Epiblast cells adjacent to the cytotrophoblast are
called amnioblasts
• together with the rest of the epiblast, they line
the amniotic cavity
DAY 9
• Blastocyst is more deeply embedded in the
endometrium
• vacuoles appear in the syncytium
vacuoles fuse

form large lacunae

lacunar stage
• At the abembryonic pole, flattened cells probably
originating from the hypoblast form a thin
membrane, the exocoelomic (Heuser's)
membrane

• This membrane, with the hypoblast, forms the

lining of the exocoelomic cavity, or primitive yolk
sac
DAYS 11 AND 12
• surface epithelium almost entirely covers the
original defect in the uterine wall
• trophoblast is characterized by lacunar spaces in
the syncytium that form an intercommunicating
network
• syncytiotrophoblast penetrate deeper and erode
the endothelial lining of the maternal capillaries
• maternal blood begins to flow through the
trophoblastic system, establishing the
uteroplacental circulation
 uteroplacental circulation

uteroplacental circulation
• new cells appears between cytotrophoblast and
exocoelomic cavity
• derived from yolk sac cells, form a fine, loose
connective tissue, the extraembryonic
mesoderm
• large cavities develop in the extraembryonic
mesoderm, and become confluent

extraembryonic coelom, or chorionic

cavity
• extraembryonic mesoderm lining the
cytotrophoblast and amnion is called the
extraembryonic somatopleuric mesoderm

• the lining covering the yolk sac is known as the

extraembryonic splanchnopleuric mesoderm
Decidua reaction

• Cells of the endometrium become polyhedral and

loaded with glycogen and lipids

• intercellular spaces are filled with extravasate,

and the tissue is edematous
DAY 13
• trophoblast is characterized by villous structures
• Cells of the cytotrophoblast forming cellular
columns surrounded by syncytium.
• Cellular columns with the syncytial covering are
known as primary villi
• hypoblast produces additional cells that migrate
along the inside of the exocoelomic membrane
• These cells proliferate and gradually form a new
cavity within the exocoelomic cavity
secondary yolk sac or definitive yolk sac
extraembryonic coelom expands and forms a large
cavity, the chorionic cavity.
 The extraembryonic mesoderm lining the inside
of the cytotrophoblast is then known as the
chorionic plate
Trilaminar Germ Disc/GASTRULATION
• Begins with formation of the primitive streak on
the surface of the epiblast
• primitive node, consists of a slightly elevated area
surrounding the small primitive pit
• Invagination
• Cell migration and specification are controlled by
fibroblast growth factor 8 (FGF8)
• Once the cells have invaginated, some displace
the hypoblast, creating the embryonic
endoderm

• Others come to lie between the epiblast and newly

created endoderm to form mesoderm

• Cells remaining in the epiblast then form

ectoderm
• When cells move down spread laterally and
cranially
• The prechordal plate itself forms between the tip
of the notochord and the oropharyngeal
membrane
• is derived from some of the first cells that migrate
through the node in the midline and move in a
cephalic direction
• prechordal plate will be important for induction of
the forebrain
FORMATION OF THE NOTOCHORD
• Prenotochordal cells move forward cranially in
the midline until they reach the prechordal plate
• cells of the notochordal plate proliferate and
detach from the endoderm
• elongation of the notochord is a dynamic process,
• The cranial end forms first, and caudal regions
are added as the primitive streak assumes a more
caudal position
• pit forms an indentation in the epiblast, the
neurenteric canal temporarily connects the
amniotic and yolk sac cavities
• cloacal membrane
• Oropharyngeal membrane
consists of tightly adherent ectoderm and
endoderm cells with no intervening mesoderm
• When the cloacal membrane appears, the posterior
wall of the yolk sac forms a small diverticulum that
extends into the connecting stalk = allantois,
appears around the 16th day
• Establishment of the body axes takes place before
and during the period of gastrulation
• anterior visceral endoderm (AVE)
• transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β)
• bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4)
• fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
• Regions of the epiblast that migrate through the
primitive streak have been mapped
• The embryonic disc, initially flat and almost
round,
• Gradually becomes elongated, with a broad
cephalic and a narrow caudal end
• Migration of cells forward and laterally continues
until the end of the fourth week
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF THE
TROPHOBLAST
• 3rd wk trophoblast is characterized by primary villi
• During further development, mesodermal cells
penetrate the core of primary villi and grow toward
the decidua =secondary villus
• end of 4th WK mesodermal cells in the core of the
villus begin to differentiate into blood cells and
small blood vessels = tertiary villus or
definitive placental villus
• Capillaries in tertiary villi make contact with
capillaries developing in the mesoderm of the
chorionic plate and in the connecting stalk
• connecting the placenta and the embryo
 The Embryonic Period
• From 3rd to 8th wks of development
• is the time when each of the three germ layers, gives
rise to a number of specific tissues and organs
DERIVATIVES OF THE ECTODERM
Neurulation
• is the process whereby the neural plate forms the
neural tube
• end of 3rd wk, the lateral edges of the neural plate
become elevated to form neural folds, and the
depressed mid region forms the neural groove
• Fusion begins in the cervical region (fifth somite)

• cephalic and caudal ends of the neural tube

communicate with the amniotic cavity

• Closure of the cranial neuropore occurs at

approximately day 25, whereas the posterior
neuropore closes at day 28
Neural Crest Cells
• As neural folds elevate and fuse, cells at the lateral
border or crest of the neuroectoderm begin to
dissociate from their neighbors
• Neural crest will undergo an epithelial to
mesenchymal transition as it leaves the
neuroectoderm by active migration and displacement
to enter the underlying mesoderm.
• Crest cells from the trunk region leave the
neuroectoderm after closure of the neural tube

Migrate along one of two pathways:

o Dorsal pathway through the dermis
o Ventral pathway through the anterior half of each
somite
• Neural crest cells of cranial neural folds, leaving the
neural tube before closure in this region
• These cells contribute to the craniofacial skeleton, as
well as neurons for cranial ganglia, glial cells,
melanocytes, and other cell types
• fate of the entire ectodermal germ layer depends on
BMP concentrations (noggin and chordin)
 High levels
 intermediate levels
 very low
 BMPs also regulate neural crest cell migration,
proliferation, and differentiation
• By the time the neural tube is closed, two bilateral
ectodermal thickenings, become visible in the
cephalic region of the embryo
▫ Otic placodes
▫ Lens placodes
ectodermal germ layer gives rise to organs and
structures that maintain contact with the outside world:

• CNS
• PNS
• sensory epithelium of the ear, nose, and eye
• The epidermis, hair and nails.
• Subcutaneous glands,
• The mammary glands,
• The pituitary gland,
• And enamel of the teeth
DERIVATIVES OF THE MESODERM
• cells close to the midline proliferate and form a
thickened plate of tissue known as paraxial
mesoderm
• More laterally, the mesoderm layer remains thin and
is known as the lateral plate

With the appearance and coalescence of

intercellular cavities
▫ somatic or parietal mesoderm
▫ splanchnic or visceral mesoderm layer
Paraxial Mesoderm
• beginning of3rd wk, paraxial mesoderm begins to be
organized into segments (somitomeres)
• These segments, first appear in the cephalic region of the
embryo
• From the occipital region caudally, somitomeres further
organize into somites.
• The first pair of somites arises in the occipital region of
the embryo at approximately the 20th day of development
• From here, new somites appear in craniocaudal sequence
at a rate of approximately three pairs per day until, at the
end of the fifth week,
• 42 to 44 pairs are present
Somite Differentiation
• When somites first form from presomitic mesoderm,
they exist as a ball of mesoderm (fibroblastlike) cells
• Then undergo a process of epithelization and arrange
themselves in a donut shape
• By the beginning of 4th wk, cells in the ventral and
medial walls of the somite lose their epithelial
characteristics,
• Shift their position to surround the neural tube and
notochord form the sclerotome
• Each myotome and dermatome retains its
innervation from its segment of origin, no matter
where the cells migrate

• Signals for somite differentiation arise from

surrounding structures, including
 Notochord
 Neural tube
 Epidermis
 Lateral plate mesoderm
Intermediate Mesoderm
• Tmporarily connects paraxial mesoderm with the
lateral plate
• differentiates into urogenital structures
• segmental cell clusters (future nephrotomes)

• caudally, it forms an unsegmented mass of tissue, the

nephrogenic cord
• Excretory units of the urinary system and the gonads
develop from this partly segmented, partly
unsegmented intermediate mesoderm
Lateral Plate Mesoderm
• The parietal layer of lateral plate mesoderm forms the
dermis of the skin in the body wall and limbs, the
bones and connective tissue of the limbs, and the
sternum

• The visceral layer of lateral plate mesoderm, together

with embryonic endoderm, forms the wall of the gut
tube Mesoderm cells of the parietal layer surrounding
the intraembryonic cavity form thin membranes
Blood cells and blood vessels
• arise from mesoderm
• Blood vessels form in two ways:
Vasculogenesis:- whereby vessels arise from blood
islands
Angiogenesis:- sprouting from existing vessels

The first blood islands appear in mesoderm

surrounding the wall of the yolk sac at 3 weeks of
development
These islands arise from mesoderm cells that are
induced to form hemangioblasts, a common precursor
for vessel and blood cell formation
• The definitive hematopoietic stem cells are derived
from mesoderm surrounding the aorta in a site
near the developing mesonephric kidney called the
aorta-gonad-mesonephros region (AGM)
DERIVATIVES OF THE ENDODERM