Training Program

Design
Programme design can be described as the process of
developing training curricula and materials to meet training and
development needs. Effective programme design therefore should be
oriented towards job performance rather than towards subject matter
content or training staff preferences.
Programme design has three major phases:
•Preparation or training-needs identification phase- where
required job performance is compared with current job performance
and the resulting gap identified. This “gap” or discrepancy is further
analyzed to determine what can be reduced or eliminated by
training. This tells us what training objectives should be.
•Development phase- where training programme units are
outlined in terms of job tasks, and the content and sequence of
individual sessions is developed. This tells us how the training will be
done.
•Improvement phase- where each individual training unit and the
total programme is evaluated against session objectives to
determine where further improvements can be made.
In order to optimize training and development activities two
points should be considered during the design stage:
(i)the effectiveness of training and
(ii)the efficiency of training.
 
The effectiveness is concerned with whether the training
achieves its objectives in terms of learning objectives and
transfer of skills to the job. In this context we ask whether a
certain development could best be learned through a certain
method-lecture, case study, role-play, etc.
 
The efficiency is concerned with the cost and time required
to deliver training to the level of agreed effectiveness. Thus,
the efficiency of training is a feature of the training media used.
In this context we asked whether a module should be conducted
through a lecture, audio-video aids, computer-based training,
etc.
 Main Elements of Programme Design

The main elements of programme design are:

•needs analysis
•learner analysis
•setting objectives
•designing the training curriculum
•selection of training and development methods.
•selection of training and development media
•evaluation
 Main Elements of Programme Design
Training-needs analysis helps to identify and prioritize the
most critical problems and needs, and to determine which of
them could be solved by training.
Learner analysis is important to identify individual needs and
learning potential or trainability of trainees.

The setting of clear and precise objectives is important to

specify the nature, dimensions and the volume of the
knowledge, attitude and skill, which should be changed during
the training. Often, the objectives indicate job standards or
performance parameters to be achieved.

Designing the training curriculum deals with selecting,

producing, sequencing and reviewing the training modules.
 Main Elements of Programme Design
Selection of the appropriate training and development
methods is important to ensure that effective training is
carried out in accordance with the curriculum and the
objectives.
 
Selection of the appropriate training media ensured that
the training is delivered in the most efficient manner possible.
 
Training results evaluation serves to monitor the
programme implementation and ensure whether the training
objectives have been achieved and, if not, why not and what
types of corrective action are necessary.
 Main Elements of Programme Design
With regard to the phases outlined in the introduction, the
preparation phase would include:
•needs analysis
•learner analysis
•setting general objectives (including performance
targets)
The development phase would include:
•setting detailed objectives
•designed the training curriculum
•selection of training and development methods
•selection of training and development media
The improvement phase would include evaluation with
feedback and necessary interventions in the first two
phases, particularly for medium-and long-term training
programmes.
Learner Analysis
If the needs analysis indicates among other things the
expected outcomes of a successful training programme,
the analysis of the learners could provide essential
information on their trainability, the possible length of the
training and the extent of training to be carried out.
Fundamental differences between people usually influence
their learning capabilities and hence influence programme
design.
These differences could be analyzed in the following areas:
•intellectual ability
•prior knowledge or expertise in the area to be
taught
•motivation to learn
 Learner Analysis
i. Intellectual ability could be reflected in the learners’
capability to plan their own learning, and conceptual and
intellectual readiness to cope with learning tasks and
materials.
•Can the learner select the most important aspects of the
courses material, devote sufficient time and attention to
critical programme elements and ignore the unimportant
ones?
•Can the learner connect and interrelate new knowledge,
which is particularly important for managers in order to
integrate and conceptualize fragmented facts, derived
trends and practical conclusions?
All these depend upon the intellectual abilities of the trainees.
 Learner Analysis
ii. Prior knowledge or expertise in the area to be taught
obviously influences the breadth and depth of the course
level, the content and the pace of instruction. If the course
level is too low and/or the pace of instruction too slow or
vice versa, the trainees will become frustrated. This is often
a problem on programmes for managers with widely
divergent knowledge and expertise, particularly if they are
drawn from various organizations, departments and
functions. In such a situation, specific skill training modules
should be provided separately from the main course, and
the latter should be confined to specific organization
issues.  
 Learner Analysis
iii. Motivation influences the effectiveness of learning and
depends greatly upon such factors as the values that learners
place on the learning task or objective in relation to their present
job and their future career, their perception of their own
knowledge and trainability, and the difficulty of the task or
objective.
 
If a task perceived as very difficult or very easy, learners will put
in very little effort. The learners; overestimation of the own
abilities could also reduce their efforts in the learning process.

Finally, if the project design is not based on their interests and

identified individual needs, the learners are not going to pay full
attention to the programme. The design should prove and be
seen by learners to be based on all these three considerations.
Setting Detailed Objectives
Training objectives are normally derived by comparing actual
and expected job performance through training and
development needs analysis. Training objectives can be
conveniently classified into the following two categories:
 
Programme objectives, which include training objectives for
the whole training programme; and

Session objectives, which include training objectives for

individual training sessions.
 
In long training programmes a third category-unit objectives-
may also be introduced, where the programme is divided into
units, before being farther divided into individual training
sessions.
Setting Detailed Objectives
An example of programme objectives for a training
programme on performance appraisal may be as
follows:
At the end of the training programmes trainers will be
able to:
•describe performance appraisal and its
advantages.
•describe and conduct the steps of a formal
appraisal system,;
•set performance standards and evaluate the actual
work carried out; and
•plan and conduct the performance interview and
place emphasis on problem solving, goal setting and
improving performance.
Setting Detailed Objectives
Elements of a performance-based objective
This objective must be:
•specific- related to definite action;
•measurable- describe the quality or quantity required;
•attainable- possible to achieve, not just a target;
•relevant- to do with the behavior required; and
•time-related- performance at or within a specified time.
In order to explain these characteristics better we can relate
them to the objectives of the training programme, for example,
on performance appraisal.
Setting Detailed Objectives
i. Specific. There are a number of areas to definite actions,
such as describing performance appraisal and its advantages,
conducting the steps of a formal appraisal system, etc.
 
ii. Measurable. It should be possible to evaluate by questions or
other tests whether the trainee can describe the performance
appraisal system and its advantages, and outline the steps that
need to be takes to conduct a formal performance appraisal. It
should also be possible to measure the trainee’s skills in
applying the performance interview techniques.
 
iii. Attainable. The objectives, in this case, are a combination of
the knowledge and skills objectives, information about appraisal
planning, information on conducting the performance interview,
attitude objectives, and using performance appraisal results in
practice.
Setting Detailed Objectives
iv. Relevant. If the company does not currently practice
performance appraisal nor plan to do so in the future, the
objectives of this course will not be related to the behavior and
skills required by the job and hence the learning itself will not be
successful.
 
v. Time-related. The skills, knowledge and attitudes are to be
acquired during the course. In addition, as part of this
programme, trainees are recommended to apply their
knowledge back on the job within a specified period. For
example, each trainee (manager) will carry out an appraisal
interview with all his or her subordinates within two weeks of
returning to work. Many training programmes now incorporate
the development of an action plan for transferring the acquired
skill knowledge and attitude back to the job.
Designing the Training Curriculum
This stage involves the selecting, producing, sequencing
and reviewing of training modules to meet the identified
programme objectives.
 
i. Selecting: In this area we are concerned with selecting
subject areas and prioritizing the content under the following
headlines:
•What the learner must know- items essential to the
programme objectives.
•What the learner should know- items which supplement the
essential materials and should be included if successful time
is available.
•What the learner could know- items which are interesting
and relevant but not essential.
Designing the Training Curriculum
ii. Sequencing: This can be approved in a number of ways. For
example, to start with, the need for certain knowledge should
be identified before other knowledge can be discussed.
Although not necessary for understanding, materials may be
available which can make learning of a segment easier if they
precede it. If the variation in learning difficulty is great, and
should the learning of the easier parts help in learning the more
difficult materials, a sequence developed around the concept of
moving from the easier to the more difficult tasks may be better.
 
Normally a mixture of the above approaches may be the best.
As the purpose of the programme is achievement by the trainee
of the programme objectives, pedagogical logic or learning-
effectiveness considerations must carry a higher priority than
subject-matter logic.
Designing the Training Curriculum
iii. Production of training modules: It is recommended that the first step in
the modules’ production would be the preparation of a plan for each
individual training session, which could use any type of training method, e.g.
lecture, role-play, case-study, etc. Preparation of the session plan has a
number of important advantages among which the following should be
emphasized:
•a standard format for the session plan facilitates the maintenance
of a consistent approach by different trainers in their part of the
programme;
•the session plan forms an important link between the programme
objectives, based on the needs analysis, and the actual training
process;
•the session plan helps the programme designer to ensure that no
important elements of the training process or the subject-matter are
omitted;
•it also helps the trainer to continue with the session if any
deviations occur, as well as to fill in gaps for sessions that were
committed for different reasons;
•finally, the plan could also help a new or substitute trainer who has
to take over the conducting of a session.
Designing the Training Curriculum
The most important elements to be included in a session plan are
the following:
•the title of the subject to be covered in the training
session;
•the duration of the training session;
•the location and address of the session, specifying lecture
room, discussion room, computer laboratory, etc,;
•the objectives to be achieved in the training session in line
with those of the overall programme;
•the key points to be covered in the training session;
•the training equipment and audiovisual aids required for
the session;
•the session outline indicating the sequence of the subject
and their elements, the points to be covered and the
methods and media to be utilized; and
•the evaluation outline to indicate how the session is to be
assessed in meeting its objectives.
Designing the Training Curriculum
iv. Reviewing: After arranging all the components in an
appropriate sequence, the programme designer should add up
the time required. Normally it will be found that the time required
exceeds what is available. As a result, it will not be enough just
to make changes in the timetable; it will also be necessary to
revise the objectives, making them more realistic within the
given time constraints. This revision should be carried out in
agreement with the programme client since it may involve a
reduction in the achievement level agreed in advance.
 
The programme designer may also review training and
development media to maintain or even improve efficiency in the
new circumstances of the revised programme.
 Selection of Training and Development Methods
Training and development methods are important means to
support the learning process. There is need for continuous
improvement in the overall organization and methodology of
management development programmes, particularly training
methods and techniques.
 
Factors to consider in the selection of methods are:
i. Human factors.
ii. Programme objectives.
iii. Subject areas.
iv. Time and material factors
 Selection of Training and Development Methods
i. Human factors. The learner: intellectual ability, prior
knowledge or expertise in the area to be taught, and motivation.
The trainer: knowledge, managerial and teaching experience
and personality, etc.
 
A trainer-manager with expert knowledge in his or her field, but
with little or no teaching experience normally prefers to use
small discussion groups rather than lecturing.
 
ii. Programme objectives. As a rule, management training
objectives are defined in terms of changes to be effective in
knowledge, attitudes and skills, which should in turn lead to
improve managerial behavior. Where training is intended to
improve multiple skills, as is usual for a management
programmes, a combination of different cognitive and
participative teaching methods could be used.
 Selection of Training and Development Methods

iii. Subject areas. Various subject areas (e.g. management,

finance, marketing, accounting) have their own specific features.
However, for a practical manager, the purpose is not only to
know the technique itself, but to be able to apply it. This practical
ability can be developed through case studies, business games,
simulation exercises, practical projects, etc. 
 Selection of Training and Development Methods
iv. Time and material factors
The following time and material factors should be taken into
consideration when designing the programme:
•the preparation time, which varies for different subjects
and training methods;
•the length of the course, which could provide an idea on
how combine different kinds of methods effectively and
when to use them;
•the time of day when the programme is conducted. For
example, the morning is the best time for lecturing, the
afternoon for participative methods; and
•the teaching facilities available. Some methods require
small teams and premises and other need large
premises; each with relevant training equipment. The
lack of adequately equipped facilities could influence the
training selection.
 Selecting of Training and Development Media
Once the training content has been decided and the appropriate
training methods selected to support the learning process, the
next step is to select the appropriate media for delivery of the
training in the most efficient manner and at minimum cost.
 
For example, a trainer have a preference for videos, and design
a training programme around videos. In another case, a
company manager may decide that to keep up with new
technology, the company must build its training programme
around the medium of computer-based training. Both these
media are very successful in appropriate situations, but will not
suit in most cases; even where they are suitable, the actual
costs, in comparison to other media, may be prohibitive.
 Selecting of Training and Development Media
It should also be remembered that whereas the media selected
will affect the efficiency and cost of training, it will not necessarily
influence the effectiveness of training. For example, there will be
little difference in the delivery of the content of training between
a lecture given in person or showing a videotape of the same
lecture. There will, however, be a difference in cost and
availability, particularly if the lecturer is busy person who
charges a large fee for personal appearances. Thus, it is
important to review the most important factors influencing
training media selection when designing the programme.
 Selecting of Training and Development Media
Factors in selecting media:
The factors in selecting media are as follows:
Need for interactivity between instructor and learner. Some training
tasks or trainees require a high level of interaction. An example of media
that provide a high level or interaction is a live trainer sometimes assisted
by computers.
(i) Changes in content. The possibility and scope of changes in
content must be reviewed before the media is selected and the
programme material prepared. For example, where training materials are
selected to meet training needs and some of the content then becomes
obsolete, the materials need to be replaced or modified.
(ii) Cost and convenience factors. The first is location. In
organizations which have employees spread over a large geographical
area, trainers must decide whether to bring the learner to the training site
or the training process to the learner. This would certainly influence the
media selection. The programme designer should compare the costs and
benefits between the above-mentioned two alternatives, taking into
consideration transport, hotels, availability of media and training
equipment.
 Selecting of Training and Development Media
The second is the Number of managers to be trained. If a large
number of managers are to be trained, investment in initial media
development suited to the programme content and trainees’ needs
may be justified and training costs should be compared with expected
training effectiveness.
 
Third, When training is to be carried out. If the training has to be
carried out for a group of employees within a short period of time, the
selection of media will reflect the time constraints improved.
 
Fourth, Company conditions. Many companies have difficulty in
releasing employees for training programmes. Additional problems
occur if a company operates a shift-work system, and training must be
organized in line with constraints imposed by the work schedule. It is
necessary to consider media to suit this situation. For example,
flexible learning systems like computer-based training have the
advantage of permitting learners to learn at their own pace, in their
own time and at their own location.
 Evaluation
The last step in the process of programme design is preparing
evaluation instruments. This is certainly important because it
determines if the learner has achieved the objectives of the
programme and also highlights areas where the programme should be
revised.
It is useful to think about the training evaluation process in terms of
four main levels of evaluation.
 
i. The reaction level is obtained from the reaction of the learners after
each training session, each module or at the end of the course. This
provide an immediate feedback from the learners on areas such as
the course content, its relevance to the job, the quality of presentation,
the training climate, where improvement could be made, and so on.
This immediate feedback assists the trainer in steering the course
adequately. However it is of limited value since it does not measure
actual learning, nor can it measure the application of new concepts on
the job. Thus, evaluation at this level can only answer the questions
“How do trainees learn?” and “Are they happy or not?”
 Evaluation
ii. Learning level measure the amount of learning that trainees have
acquire during the training programme. It would also answer questions on
what and how well they have learned during the course. Learning will be
measured against programme learning objectives for individual session
and for the total training programme. The design of evaluation procedures
will cover knowledge, skill and attitude learning, and it forms part of the
programme design process.
 
iii. Job behavior level measure whether learners have transferred and
applied their learning to the job. This is more difficult to measure, since it
should happen out of the programme context and in the actual job setting.
The best way to do this is for trainers to visit learners (or some of them) in
their work situations before and after the training programme to discuss
any changes in their job performance with them and their managers.
 
iv. Functioning level measures the change in department or
organization performance which can be credited to the training. It is
difficult to estimate because many other factors than training affect
performance. However, there are some statistical and analytical methods
which can be used to eliminate the influence of those other factors.
 Program Logistics
Programme design also includes a number of areas which
support the training activity and without which it will not take
place or would be ineffective. These are:
•Planning
•Budgeting
•Timing
•Staffing
•Facilities
•Programme promotion and marketing
Program Logistics
ii. Preparing the programme budget
The following worksheet outlines the main budget items with regard to training.
Budget items
Staff salaries: Staff benefits:
Clerical Clerical
Professional Professional
Outside consultants
Equipment Facilities
Promotional material Meeting rooms
Staff work rooms
Hospitality areas
Instructional material Accommodation for staff participants
Films Means, coffee breaks, receptions
Videotapes Staff
Audiotapes Participants
3.5mm slides Timing
Overhead transparencies
Manuals
Hand-outs
Computer programmes
Books and articles
Other
Travel General Overheads
Staff Administrative costs
In-house Utilities
External consultants Maintenance
Participants Other.
 
TOTAL COSTS
 Program Logistics
iii. Timing of Programmes
Some factors which affect the timing of programmes and should be taken
into consideration at the design stage are as follows:
 
Availability of potential trainees. Generally speaking, holiday periods
are not very popular for training courses because many potential trainees
are not available. However, some universities schedule programmes at
this time, as training resources become available. Other organizations
commence programs after the holiday period or after the beginning of the
financial year in line with the availability of training budgets and/or a
reduction in the volume of urgent work.
 
Availability of trainers and facilities. Management development
programme will-in addition to company trainers-also utilize outside
trainers and consultants. Their availability may be limited and therefore
often determine when the programme can be conducted. Availability of
outside training and residential facilities are also important in
programming training.
 Program Logistics
Lead time for programme. In many cases the actual logistics of
planning, designing, promoting and providing training resources
and faculty staff, means that a minimum lead time exists before
a successful programme can commence. This time depends on
the number of participants, their jobs, location, programme
complexity, professionalism of the training and support staff, etc,
and should b well assessed during the design stage.
 Program Logistics
iv. Staffing
The planner also needs to consider the availability of; (i) staff members,
either training or management staff; (ii) outside consultants or guest
speakers; and (iii) administration and support staff.
 

v. Facilities
A seminar facility checklist as well as factors to be considered in choosing
meeting rooms are suggested below:
•Availability on seminar dates
•Cost (rooms, meals, seminar rooms, equipments, tc.)
•Transport (public or own car, if public, consider convenience, frequency and
costs)
•Seminar room (size, appearance, lighting, décor, outlook, sound protection,
ventilation and other comfort conditions)
•Supporting services (food, sleeping accommodation, recreation, public
telephone, etc)
•General (scenic outlook, general décor, cleanliness, experience in hosting
seminars, etc)
•Factors to consider in choosing meeting rooms (room size, room structure,
windows, furnishing, acoustics, color scheme, floor coverings, lighting,
electrical outlets, glare, temperature, ventilation, noise, computer hook-in)
 Program Logistics
vii. Promotion of Programmes
Promotion involves developing strategies and materials aimed at generating
enrolments for trainees for training programmes. Examples of promotional
materials used to foster interest in training programs could be as follows:
•Brochures
•Newsletter/newspaper
•Promotional contacts
•Leaflets
•Posters
•Magazine advertisements
•Television and radio advertising