The Nucleus: A Chemist's View

AP*
Chapter 19
The Nucleus:
A Chemist’s View
AP Learning Objectives
 LO 4.3 The student is able to connect the half-life of a reaction to the rate
constant of a first-order reaction and justify the use of this relation in terms of
the reaction being a first-order reaction. (Sec 19.2, 19.4)
Section 19.1
Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay
Review
 Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons
 Mass Number (A) – sum of protons and neutrons
A
Z X
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Section 19.1
Radioactive Decay
 Nucleus undergoes decomposition to form a
different nucleus.

Section 19.1
Radioactive Stability
 Nuclides with 84 or more protons are unstable.
 Light nuclides are stable when Z equals A – Z
(neutron/proton ratio is 1).
 For heavier elements the neutron/proton ratio
required for stability is greater than 1 and increases
with Z.

Section 19.1
 Certain combinations of protons and neutrons seem
to confer special stability.
 Even numbers of protons and neutrons are more
often stable than those with odd numbers.

Section 19.1
 Certain specific numbers of protons or neutrons
produce especially stable nuclides.
 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126

Section 19.1
The Zone of Stability

Section 19.1
Types of Radioactive Decay

 Alpha production (α):
 Beta production (β):

Section 19.1

 Gamma ray production (γ):
 Positron production:

Section 19.1

 Electron capture:
Inner-orbital electron

Section 19.1
Decay Series (Series of Alpha and Beta Decays)

Section 19.1
CONCEPT CHECK!
Which of the following produces a  particle?
a) 68
31 Ga + 0
1 e  68
30 Zn electron capture
b) 62
29 Cu  0
1 e+ 62
28 Ni positron
c) 212
87 Fr  4
2 He + 208
85 At alpha particle
d) 129
51 Sb  0
1 e+ 129
52 Te beta particle
Section 19.2
The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

 Learning Objectives
 LO 4.3 The student is able to connect the half-life of a reaction to the rate constant of a first-order reaction and
justify the use of this relation in terms of the reaction being a first-order reaction.
Section 19.2
Rate of Decay
Rate = kN
 The rate of decay is proportional to the number of
nuclides. This represents a first-order process.

Section 19.2
Half-Life
 Time required for the number of nuclides to reach half
the original value.
ln  2  0.693
t1/ 2 = =
k k

Section 19.2
Nuclear Particles
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Section 19.2
Half-Life of Nuclear Decay

Section 19.2
EXERCISE!
A first order reaction is 35% complete at the

end of 55 minutes. What is the value of k?
k = 7.8 × 10-3 min-1

Section 19.3
Nuclear Transformations
Nuclear Transformation
 The change of one element into another.
27
13 Al + He  P + n
4
2
30
15
1
0
249
98 Cf + 188 O  106
263
Sg + 4 01 n

Section 19.3
A Schematic Diagram of a Cyclotron
21
Section 19.3
A Schematic Diagram of a Linear Accelerator

Section 19.4
Detection and Uses of Radioactivity
AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

 Learning Objectives
 LO 4.3 The student is able to connect the half-life of a reaction to the rate constant of a first-order reaction and
justify the use of this relation in terms of the reaction being a first-order reaction.
Section 19.4
Measuring Radioactivity Levels

 Geiger counter
 Scintillation counter

Section 19.4
Geiger Counter

Section 19.4
Carbon–14 Dating
 Used to date wood and cloth artifacts.
 Based on carbon–14 to carbon–12 ratio.

Section 19.4
Radiotracers
 Radioactive nuclides that are introduced into organisms
in food or drugs and whose pathways can be traced by
monitoring their radioactivity.

Section 19.4
Radiotracers

Section 19.5
Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus
Energy and Mass

 When a system gains or loses energy it also gains or
loses a quantity of mass.
E = mc2
Δm = mass defect
ΔE = change in energy
 If ΔE is negative (exothermic), mass is lost from

the system.
Section 19.5
Mass Defect (Δm)

 Calculating the mass defect for 42 He:
 Since atomic masses include the masses of the electrons, we
must account for the electron mass.
4 4
4.0026 = mass of 2 He atom = mass of 2 He nucleus + 2me
1 1
1.0078 = mass of 1H atom = mass of 1H nucleus + me
4
 He nucleus is “synthesized” from 2 protons and two
2
neutrons.
m =  4.0026  2me    2  1.0078  me  + 2  1.0087  
m =  0.0304 amu
30
Section 19.5
Binding Energy
 The energy required to decompose the nucleus into its
components.
 Iron-56 is the most stable nucleus and has a binding
energy of 8.79 MeV.

Section 19.5
Binding Energy per Nucleon vs. Mass Number

Section 19.6
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 Fusion – Combining two light nuclei to form a heavier,
more stable nucleus.
 Fission – Splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with

smaller mass numbers.
1
0 n+ 235
92 U  142
56 Ba +
91
36 Kr + 3 01 n

Section 19.6
Nuclear Fission

Section 19.6
Fission Processes
 A self-sustaining fission process is called a chain reaction.
Neutrons
Causing
Fission
Event Event Result
subcritical <1 reaction stops
critical =1 sustained reaction
supercritical >1 violent explosion
Section 19.6
Schematic Diagram of a Nuclear Power Plant

Section 19.6
Schematic Diagram
of a Reactor Core

Section 19.6
Nuclear Fusion

Section 19.7
Effects of Radiation
Biological Effects of Radiation

Depend on:
1. Energy of the radiation

2. Penetrating ability of the radiation
3. Ionizing ability of the radiation
4. Chemical properties of the radiation source

Section 19.7
rem (roentgen equivalent for man)

 The energy dose of the radiation and its effectiveness in causing
biologic damage must be taken into account.
Number of rems = (number of rads) × RBE
rads = radiation absorbed dose

RBE = relative effectiveness of the
radiation in causing biologic damage
40
Section 19.7
Effects of Short-Term Exposures to Radiation

The Nucleus: A Chemist's View

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The Zone of Stability

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Types of Radioactive Decay

 Beta production (β):

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Types of Radioactive Decay

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Types of Radioactive Decay

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Decay Series (Series of Alpha and Beta Decays)

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Which of the following produces a  particle?

AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

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Half-Life of Nuclear Decay

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A first order reaction is 35% complete at the

k = 7.8 × 10-3 min-1

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A Schematic Diagram of a Cyclotron

A Schematic Diagram of a Linear Accelerator

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AP Learning Objectives, Margin Notes and References

Measuring Radioactivity Levels

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Energy and Mass

 If ΔE is negative (exothermic), mass is lost from

Mass Defect (Δm)

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Binding Energy per Nucleon vs. Mass Number

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Nuclear Fission and Fusion

 Fission – Splitting a heavy nucleus into two nuclei with

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Schematic Diagram of a Nuclear Power Plant

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Biological Effects of Radiation

1. Energy of the radiation

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rem (roentgen equivalent for man)

Number of rems = (number of rads) × RBE

rads = radiation absorbed dose

Effects of Short-Term Exposures to Radiation

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