Test 2 Combined P Pts

SOC 269
Cluster #4: African American

Experiences
The African American Experience
Early Experiences: The Civil Rights The Current

Slavery – Jim Crow Movement Situation
The Frontier and the Land of Opportunity
•Ideology of individualism was encouraged and

reinforced by abundance of land
•Symbol of unlimited opportunities
•Homestead Act (1862) – offered cheap land – 160 acres
•Opportunity for wealth = personal ingenuity

Reparations
Early Experiences: The Current

Slavery – Jim Crow Situation
•Victims of direct harm are dead
•Perpetrators are diffuse
•Some of the actual harms were legal at the time they

were committed
•The causal chain of harm is long and complex

Howard-Hassmann 2004
(In)voluntary Arrival / Host Society
•1619: Twenty Africans arrive in Jamestown, Virginia, as

indentured servants.
•Emerging British Colonies in North America were based

on a plantation system (subsistence technology)
•1660s: First slave laws were enacted.
The Conception of Race

• 12.5 million Africans kidnapped – Shipped to the New
World
• 10.7 million survived the Middle Passage – Arrived in

North America, Caribbean, and South America
• 388,000 – North America
• In 1850, United States Census figured show that there were

3,204,313 slaves in the United States. There were 434,449 free
Blacks, for a total of 3,638,762. Blacks comprised 15.7% of the
total U.S. population. Data Source: Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database
Slavery • 388,000
Kidnapped– North
America
(1) Slavery was for life • In 1850, United

States Census
figured show that
(2) The status was inherited there were
3,204,313 slaves in
(3) Slaves were considered mere the United States.
property (CHATTEL)
(4) Slaves were denied rights
(5) Coercion was used to

maintain the system
Slave Codes
Slave codes controlled and determined all facets of life for
the enslaved Africans.
1. A slave could not marry or even meet with a free Black.

2. Marriage between slaves was not legally recognized.
3. A slave could not legally buy or sell anything except by special
arrangement.
4. A slave could not possess weapons or liquor.
5. A slave could not quarrel with or use abusive language towards
whites.
6. A slave could not possess property (including money), except as
allowed by his or her owner.
7. A slave could make no will, nor could he or she inherit anything.
8. A slave could not make a contract or hire himself or herself out.
9. A slave could not leave a plantation without a pass noting his or her
destination and time of return.
10. No one, including whites, was to teach a slave (and in some areas
even a free black) to read or write or to give a slave a book, including
the Bible.
11. A slave could not gamble.
12. A slave had to obey established curfews.
13. A slave could not testify in court except against another slave.
Article 1, Section 2, which counts slaves as three-fifths of a person
Article 1, Sections 2 and 9, which apportion taxes on the states using

the three-fifths formula
Article 1, Section 8, which gives Congress authority to suppress slave

and other insurrections
Article 1, Section 9, which prevents the slave trade from being

abolished before 1808
Article 1, Sections 9 and 10, which exempt goods made by slaves

from export duties
Article 4, Section 2, which requires the return of fugitive slaves
Article 4, Section 4, which stipulates that the federal government must

help state governments put down domestic violence, including slave
uprisings
Why Africans?
Identifiability or
Distinctiveness
Distinguishing
biological, behavioral,
organizational, and
cultural characteristics
•Most simply, their physical and cultural traits were more obviously
distinct than those of other groups.
•Their lack of Christianity.
•They were forced to live in a foreign land and lacked organization.
•Indians were familiar with the terrain and could more easily escape to their
own people.
•Indians remained culturally and politically organized. They were numerical

large.
•Ideological support that black Africans were a different form of humanity.

Arrival
Voluntary or involuntary
INCLUSION Identifiability or
Distinctiveness
Distinguishing
Host Society
biological, behavioral,
Differences in social
organizational, and
power and time of entry
cultural characteristics
Blauner Hypothesis:
African Americans Mexican Americans Native Americans
Forced Minority Status

Blauner Hypothesis
•Forced entry into a territory and its

population
•Alteration or destruction of the indigenous

culture and patterns of social organization
•The domination of the indigenous

population by representatives of the invading
society
•Justification of such activities with highly

prejudicial, racist beliefs and stereotypes.
The Blauner Hypothesis
Africans as a colonized minority group:
•Forced into minority status by superior military power and political power
of the dominant group. They were chattel.
•Subjected to massive inequalities and attacks on their culture.
•Perpetuated and reinforced through their distinctive physical traits.
•Paternalistic relations / Caste system

Resistance to Slavery
Resistance occurred at every stage of the process: at the
actual kidnapping,
during the Middle Passage, and on the plantations.
•Running away (Article 4 / Section 2 – requires the return of

fugitive slaves)
•Rebellions (Article 4 / Section 4 – federal government must

help to curb slave uprisings)
•Deliberate slowing up of work
•Destruction of property
•Feigning illness and pregnancy
•Self-inflicted injury
•Suicide
•Infanticide
Dred Scott Decision (1857)
The Supreme Court ruled that African

Americans had no rights which whites
were bound to respect.
They could never become citizens of the US
The Constitution did not protect them
Discrimination Identifiability or Distinctiveness

Civil War: 1861 - 1865
•Federal government versus 11 Southern states (right

to secede from the union)
•One of every 25 American men perished in the war.

•3 million fought / 600,000 died
Key Legislative Decisions
Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Proclaimed slaves to be free and authorized

the armed forces of the United States to enlist free slaves.
13th Amendment (1865): The legal institution of slavery was abolished.
Civil Rights Act (1866): Declared Blacks to be citizens of the United States, gave
them equal civil rights, and gave federal courts jurisdiction over cases arising under
the act.
14th Amendment (1868): Declared that states could not deprive any person of
Life, liberty, or property without ‘due process of the law.’
• In 1850, United States Census figured show that there
were 3,204,313 slaves in the United States. There were
434,449 free Blacks, for a total of 3,638,762. Blacks
comprised 15.7% of the total U.S. population.
Dominant Group
Minority Group
Competition Threat Discourse
Size Increases
Minority Group
Minority Group Threat Model

•Sense of superiority
•Feeling that the subordinate group is

intrinsically different
•Feeling of proprietary claim to certain

privilege and advantages
•Feeling of suspicion that the subordinate

group harbors designs on prerogatives of the
dominant race
Backlash Against African Americans
Ku Klux Klan
Emancipation Proclamation (1863):

13th Amendment (1865):
Civil Rights Act (1866): Jim Crow Laws
14th Amendment (1868):
Voting Restrictions
Jumping
Jim
Crow
Jim Crow Laws – (minstrel
Enforcement of racial Separate but Equalcaricatur
in Southern states. Plessy V. Ferguson (1896)e)
Voting Restrictions
•Pass a literacy test
•Be a property holder
•Pay poll tax
•“Grandfather clause”: If your ancestors had been

eligible to vote in 1860
Plessy versus Ferguson (1896)
•Planned challenge to 1890 Louisiana Separate Car Act
•Homer Plessy 7/8th white – could “pass” as white
•Passengers were required to sit in the appropriate areas or face a

$25 fine or a 20-day jail sentence.
•It was argued that “Plessy was denied his equal protection rights
under the Fourteenth Amendment and violated the Thirteenth
Amendment by perpetuating the essential features of slavery.”
We consider the underlying fallacy of the
plaintiffs argument to consist in the
assumption that the enforced separation of
the two races stamps the colored race with
a badge of inferiority. If this be so, it is not
by reason of anything found in the act, but
solely because the colored race chooses to
put that construction upon it
De jure segregation: The
system of rigid competitive
race relations
that was characterized by
laws mandating racial
separation and inequality
Booker T. Washington W.E.B. Du Bois
Functionalist Conflict
Marcus Garvey
Anti-Assimilationist
(conflict)
Key Persons / Organizations
Booker T. Washington
Functionalist -
Accommodationist
Booker T. Washington, an influential and powerful

spokesperson for Black America, argued that Blacks were
still too recently removed from slavery to take their place as
equals among the Whites.
He emphasized that Blacks must adopt an economic

program of manual labor and self-help (industrial education)
as the best means to win their full rights as citizens rather
than engaging in political action (the “Atlanta Compromise”
speech - 1895). {one year before the Plessy versus
Ferguson decision}
W.E.B. Du Bois
Conflict
Du Bois formed the Niagara Movement (1906 – 29 members) to

express opposition to Washington’s views. He advocated that
Blacks should protest the curtailment of their political and civil
rights.
Blacks should strive to establish economic independence. They

should join together to attempt to solve their problems, and that the
ultimate goal of any
strategy should be the full acceptance of African Americans as
first-class citizens of the US.
The Talented Tenth (advocated) – Educating the best minds (1 /

10) – they would help lead the masses (classical education versus
industrial education)
Key Persons / Organizations Conflict
NAACP (1909)
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
Niagara group’s members merged with a group of White liberals to form the
NAACP.
NAACP adopted a legal and legislative strategy. It called on Congress and the
president to enforce strictly the Constitution’s provisions on civil rights.
Brown v. Board of Education (1954):
Racial segregation of children in public

schools violated the Equal Protection
Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Segregation of children in public schools
solely on the basis of race deprives children of
the minority group of equal educational
opportunities, even though the physical
facilities and other "tangible" factors may be
equal. Pp. 493-494.(e) The "separate but
equal" doctrine adopted in Plessy v. Ferguson,
163 U.S. 537, has no place in the field of
public education. P. 495.(f)
The Doll Test
Segregation "generates a feeling of inferiority as

to their status in the community that may affect
their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to be
undone."
Brown versus the Board of Education (1954)
“The decision held that racial segregation of children
in public schools violated the Equal Protection Clause
of the Fourteenth Amendment.”
•All justices should be impeached
•14th Amendment ruled

unconstitutional
•Some cities closed schools rather

than comply
Marcus Garvey
Anti-Assimilationist (conflict)
Garvey organized the Universal Negro Improvement Association which

had as its long-range goal to help African Americans leave the US and settle
in an independent nation in Africa (1920s)
Garvey believed that the solution to America’s racial problem was the
Renunciation of American citizenship and permanent separation of the two races.
Rosa Parks (1955) – Mother of the Civil Rights Movemen
Challenged the policy of racial segregation on the public transit system of
Montgomery, Alabama
Browder v.
Gayle
(1956)
Conflict
Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955 – 1956)
Martin Luther King
Conflict
One of the leading figures in the Civil Rights Movement. Dr. King founded
the Southern Christian Leadership Conference to gain civil rights
through nonviolent protest and confrontation.
Civil Disobedience
Civil disobedience is based on the belief that people have
the right to disobey the law under certain circumstances.
1. Active nonviolent resistance to evil
2. Not seeking to defeat or humiliate opponents but to win their

friendship and understanding
3. Attacking the forces of evil rather than the people who happen to be
doing the evil
4. Willingness to accept suffering without retaliating
5. Refusing to hate the opponent
6. Acting with conviction that the universe is on the side of justice

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MO49GE
wUx5A
Key Legislative Decisions
The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Banned discrimination on the grounds

of race, color, religion, national origin, and gender.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965: The act banned literacy tests and other
practices that had been used to prevent Blacks from voting
Brown v
Slavery Board of Education Civil Rights Act
1600s 1954 1964
Factors that Facilitated the Success of
the Civil Rights Movement
1. The changing economic, social, and political environment
2. The movement embraced the dominant code of American values

and beliefs
3. Support from other groups
4. The influence of the mass media (911)

The Civil Rights Movement (Black Protest)
Can it Happen Again? (Morris 2006)
•Who is the clear-cut enemy of African Americans in the

21st century?
•Black class structure has become highly differentiated.
•Institutional strength of the Black community?

Black Power / Black Muslims
Anti-Assimilationist
Malcolm X (El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz)
“Malcolm X exhorted blacks to cast off the shackles of racism ‘by any
means necessary,’ including violence.”
In the mid 1960s, many African Americans were losing hope that
new laws would end segregation and bring equality. They were
frustrated with integrationist goals. Black power movement
emphasized separation and power.
“Black is Beautiful”
The Black Muslims advocate for a separate nation right here in

the US and have suggested that several states should be set aside
for this purpose.
Early Experiences: The Civil Rights The Current

Slavery – Jim Crow Movement Situation
Cultural Assimilation
Secondary Assimilation
Primary Assimilation
Marital Assimilation
Culture of Poverty Thesis
Certain groups and individuals tend to persist in the state

of poverty because they have distinct beliefs, values and
ways of behaving that are incompatible with economic success.
Culture of Poverty
1. Poverty creates unique problems in living for the poor.
2. To cope with the problems, the poor adopt a unique

lifestyle.
3. Through collective interaction with each other (poor),

common culture is created.
4. Subculture of poverty is institutionalized, it is self-

perpetuating.
5. Poor are not able to adjust to new situations.

•Unstable families, unwed mothers,
and teen parents
•Cohabitation replaces marriage
•Parents do not invest in children’s
future
•Children grow up without skills
•Children become like their parents
•Unreliable / Poor work ethic
•Cannot defer immediate gratification
•Do not financially save money
African American Assimilation
Assimilation
Culture of Poverty: Poor people develop particular

patterns of values and ways of coping (e.g., not
working hard, not valuing school) with their
difficulties and pass these patterns down from one
generation to the next.
Ethnic Resource Model: Cultural strengths (e.g.,

extended families, strong kinship bonds, high values
on family stability) have protected the Black family
through devastating effects of slavery and recent
pattern of Black male unemployment.
Secondary Structural Assimilation
Since their emancipation, African Americans

have moved in many ways toward the goal of
full secondary assimilation.
However, large gaps still persist between whites
and blacks in regards to income, jobs,
education, and housing.
Primary Structural Assimilation
Black – White relations in the US are changing as

the social and historical contexts of racial relations
change.
Studies reveal that contact in the ‘public’ sphere is

more common than contact in the ‘private sphere’
(social contact is close, of long duration, frequent,
and involves a significant numbers of African
Americans).
(1) Out-marriages among Black have been less common

than out-marriage among other racial and ethnic
groups (nonwhites).
(2) The rate of Black – White intermarriage went up

rapidly during the 1960s and nearly doubled in the
1980s and 1990s.
(3) The declining pool of Black males who are eligible

as marriage partners has resulted in more Black
families that are headed by women who have never
married and has encouraged those who do marry to
marry outside their racial group.
SOC 269
Cluster #5: Native American

Experiences
The Native American Experiences
1.1 million
Increase in the nation's

American Indian and Alaska
Native population between
the 2000 Census and 2010
Census. The population of
this group increased by 26.7
percent during this period
compared with the overall
population growth of 9.7
Census Option (2000) – Select
percent.
as many boxes
Source: Census 2000 Brief:
*Less stigmatizing
Overview of Race and
*Economic incentive
Hispanic Origin
Increasing fertility rate
Native American Population:
10 Million (1500) / 700 languages
1.4 Million (1980)
2.1 Million (1990)
2.4 Million (2000)
2.9 Million (2010) American
Indian
Holocaust
1/3 of Native Americans live on 557 reservations and
trust lands in 33 states (2% of the land throughout
the United States)
Q: How does an Native American become a member of a Tribe?
A: A Tribe sets up its own membership criteria, although the

U.S. Congress can also establish tribal membership criteria.
Becoming a member of a particular Tribe requires meeting its
membership rules, including adoption. Except for adoption,
the amount of blood quantum needed varies, with some Tribes
requiring only proof of descent from an Native American
ancestor, while others may require as much as one-half.
The Native American Experience
Conquest and Settlement Government Policies

Toward Native Americans
The Current Situation

SEPARATISM: CULTURAL PLURALISM:
A minority group goal. Members of every American ethnic

cultures, institutions, and social lives group should be free to participate
of subordinate groups are highly in all of the society’s major institutions,
separated from those of the while simultaneously retaining
dominant group ethnic heritage
ANGLO-CONFORMITY:
The model of Assimilation by which

minority groups conform to
Anglo-American
culture
Native Americans
When examining Native Americans, a few points must be
understood:
(1) There is much that is unwritten, unstudied, and

underappreciated about Native Americans.
(2) Native Americans are unique. Not an immigrant group, as

all other minority groups were.
(3) Their relationship with the dominant group lends itself to

analysis from the conflict perspective.
(4) Native Americans are stereotyped as ‘the Indians,’ with

every member of this vast, heterogeneous group lumped
into a single category.
Native American Cultures
•Humans are simply a part of a larger reality.
“You ask me to plow the ground… Shall I take a

knife and tear my mother’s bosom? You ask me to
cut grass and make hay… but how dare I cut my
mother’s hair”
•Land simply existed, the notion of owning, selling, or

buying it was foreign to Native Americans.
•More group oriented.
•Tribes were organized around egalitarian values.

•Food source disappeared
•Measles
•Smallpox
•Influenza
•Alcohol
•Warfare
ANGLO- CULTURAL
SEPARATISM: CONFORMITY: PLURALISM:
•Proclamation of •The Bureau of •The Indian

1763 Indian Affairs Reorganization Act
•Indian Civil Rights Act

•Northwest Territory •The Dawes
(1968)
Ordinance (1787) Allotment Act
•Self Determination Act
•Cherokee Nation v. •Boarding Schools 1975
Georgia (1831)
•Native American
•Indian Citizenship
Graves Protection Act
•Worcester v. Act (1924) (1990)
Georgia (1832)
•The Termination •American Indian
Policy Religious Freedom Act
(1978)
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CULTURAL PLURALISM:
SEPARATISM:
Members of every American ethnic
A minority group goal. group should be free to participate
cultures, institutions, and social lives in all of the society’s major institutions,
of subordinate groups are highly while simultaneously retaining
separated from those of the ethnic heritage
dominant group
•Proclamation of 1763
ANGLO-CONFORMITY:
•Northwest Territory
Ordinance (1787) The model of Assimilation by which
•Cherokee Nation v Anglo-American
Georgia / Worcester v culture
Georgia
Proclamation of 1763 SEPARATISM:
(1) All land west of the Appalachian mountains was

“Indian Country.”
(2) Any settlers west of the Appalachian who had not
acquired a legal title to their land from the Indians
must return to the colonies.
(3) All future purchases from the Indians must be
conducted in public meetings attended by
representatives of the king.
Proclamation of 1763
(1) All land west of the Appalachian mountains was
“Indian Country.”
(2) Any settlers west of the Appalachian who had not
acquired a legal title to their land from the Indians
must return to the colonies.
(3) All future purchases from the Indians must be
conducted in public meetings attended by
representatives of the king.
Northwest Territory
Ordinance (1787)
The utmost good faith shall always be observed toward
the Indians; their lands and property shall never be
taken from them without their consent; and their
property, rights, and liberty, they shall never be
invaded or disturbed, unless in just and lawful wars
authorized by Congress.
SEPARATISM:
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

(1831)
•1802 – Georgia ceded western portion of its land to the U.S.
•Federal government would nullify land claims of Cherokee

Indians (60 million acres)
•Georgia annexed Cherokees’ land – force upon Cherokees the

law of Georgia
•Cherokees protest – foreign nations have the constitutional

rights to bring court action against a state.
•Are Native Americans = sovereign nations?
•NO – Domestic Dependent Nations (limits on sovereignty)

SEPARATISM:
Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
Could laws be passed that superseded the

laws of Native Americans?
Samuel Worcester
NO
•Although tribal sovereignty has limits, the
remaining sovereignty is great.
•Tribal powers can make treaties.
• Should be protected from state encroachments.
•Federal government was sole authority to deal with
Indian nations
•Enjoy basic immunities.
SEPARATISM:
Cherokee Nation v. Georgia

(1831)
and
Worcester v. Georgia (1832)
The degree of tribal authority is not

clear.
Tribal sovereignty refers to:
• Tribes' right to govern themselves
• Define their own membership
• Manage tribal property
• Regulate tribal business and domestic

relations
• Recognizes the existence of a

government-to-government
relationship between such tribes and
the federal government.
The Indian Removal Act of 1830
SEPARATISM /
ANGLO CONFORMITY:
This act was designed to force all of the
Indians in the southeastern states to
move west of the Mississippi.
•Ignored
previous court
rulings
Northwest Territory Ordinance (1787)
•Ninety-four
treaties to
induce Native
Americans to
move
•Bribery,
http://www.business2community.com/social-buzz/watch-220-
years-us-population-expansion-0838059#KtWUDE3ZmI7Vk threats, and
EFR.97
misrepresentati
Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek,
on
and Seminole
The Trail of Tears
The ordeal of removal took about twenty years, during which

more than 15,000 people died of famine and disease along the way.
By early 1840, over 100,000 Indian people had relocated.

Cultural
Encapsulation
“A lack of contact with
cultures outside of our own
that promotes insensitivity to
cultural differences” (Bucher
2004: 111)
US policy was not to antagonize the Native Americans
unnecessarily. However, needs or even whims of whites
took precedence over Native Americans.
From Separatism to Anglo Conformity
ANGLO-CONFORMITY:
Government Policies
Anglo-American
culture
•The Bureau of Indian Affairs
•The Dawes Allotment Act
•Boarding Schools
•Indian Citizenship Act

Bureau of Indian Affairs (1824)
Bureaucracy: A form of rational social organization based upon

fixed, written rules and a hierarchy of positions, which has come to
dominate in industrial societies.
The Bureau of Indian
Affairs
•BIA was created in 1824 in order to coordinate federal

relations with Indians.
•Supervised reservations and administered supplies

(management of 55.7 million acres of land).
•Under BIA domination, indigenous Indians leaders were

often set aside and replaced by white-controlled leaders.
•The action of the BIA is a clear example of the role of

government in defining and controlling racial and ethnic
groups.
ANGLO-CONFORMITY:
Government Policies
Anglo-American
culture
•Boarding Schools

The Frontier and the Land of Opportunity
•Ideology of individualism was encouraged and

reinforced by abundance of land
•Symbol of unlimited opportunities
•Homestead Act (1862) – offered cheap land – 160 acres
•Opportunity for wealth = personal ingenuity

The Dawes Allotment Act (1887)
New Rules For Land Ownership
Divided land into tracts (160 acres) which then were

allotted to members of the tribes. Any extra land left
over after each tribal member received their allotment
could be sold to the US.
Act prohibited land from being sold for 25 years
The Dawes Act was the centerpiece of the general

effort to bring Native Americans into the mainstream
of American society.
The main effect of the act was that Native Americans

lost land (90 million of the 138 million acres were
lost)
Another effect was that Dawes Act increased the

power of the BIA.
ANGLO-CONFORMITY:
Government Policies
Anglo-American
culture
•Boarding Schools

Boarding Schools
•BIA sent children to
boarding schools (1879)
•Required to speak
English, convert to
Christianity, and
become educated in the
ways of Western
civilization
•Children of different
tribes were mixed
together
•Between sessions,
children were boarded
with local white
families
Boarding School Code of Conduct
Many boarding schools were established far away from reservations so that
students would have no contact with their families and friends. Parents
were discouraged from visiting and, in most cases, students were not
allowed to go home during the summer.
Indian boarding school students wore military uniforms and were forced to
march.
They were given many rules and no choices. To disobey meant swift and
harsh punishment.
Students were forbidden to speak their language.
They were forbidden to practice their religion and were forced to memorize
Bible verses and the Lord’s Prayer.
Their days were filled with so many tasks that they had little time to think.
Students were taught that the Indian way of life was savage and inferior to
the white way. They were taught that they were being civilized or "raised
up" to a better way of life.
Indian students were told that Indian people who retained their culture were
stupid, dirty, and backwards. Those who most quickly assimilated were
called "good Indians." Those who didn’t were called "bad" Indians.
http://www.kporterfield.com
Coercive or Forced Acculturation
Iroquois Culture
Navajo Culture
Dominant
Group
Chippewa Culture
Culture
Apache Culture Acculturation: The process by which

one group (generally a minority or
immigrant group) learns the culture of
another group (generally the dominant
group).
ANGLO-CONFORMITY:
Government Policies
Anglo-American
culture
•Boarding Schools

Indian Citizenship Act (1924)
•WWI – thousands (10k) of Native

Americans served
•Token of gratitude – final process of

assimilation
•Fears that the dominant group will forgo

treaty obligations and detribalize the Native
Americans
ANGLO-CONFORMITY: CULTURAL PLURALISM:
The model of Assimilation by which Members of every American ethnic

minority groups conform to group should be free to participate
Anglo-American in all of the society’s major institutions,
culture while simultaneously retaining
ethnic heritage
•The Indian Reorganization Act
•The “Termination” Policy
•Indian Civil Rights Act (1968)

The Indian Reorganization Act (1934)
CP
By this act, the federal government abandoned the effort to
require Indians to adopt the dominant’s group’s lifestyle and
embraced instead a pluralist policy.
IRA restored the right of the Indian tribes to govern

themselves provided they were willing to adopt the American
model of representative democracy.
•Rescinded Dawes Allotment Act (programs to recover lost

land)
•Boarding school system was dismantled
•Financial aid and expertise were made available for
economic development of the reservation (natural resources)
•Financial assistance for college education
•Proposed an increase in self governance (reduced role of
BIA)

ethnic heritage

•(1945-1961)

The “Termination” Policy (1953) AC
Indians should be freed from Federal supervision

and control.
All laws and treaties currently in effect should be

nullified (with selected tribes).
Rejected the Indian Reorganization Act and

proposed a return to private land ownership.
Tribes would no longer exist as legally recognized

entities.
(Repealed 20 years later)

“American Indians do not pay taxes on moneys
earned from their land allotments, since those
lease fees are from the government and were
negotiated as part of a treaty.
While earning money on the reservation,

American Indians also do not pay state,
corporate, or state license fees for income or
enterprises on the reservations due to the
sovereign status of the reservation. While earning
money off the reservation, however, American
Indians are subject to state income, corporate,
and licensing taxes.”
September 24, 2013, Indian Country Today

The “Termination” Policy (1953) AC
Indians should be freed from Federal supervision

and control.
All laws and treaties currently in effect should be

nullified (with selected tribes).
Rejected the Indian Reorganization Act and

proposed a return to private land ownership.
Tribes would no longer exist as legally recognized

entities.
(Repealed 20 years later)

The “Termination” Policy (1953)
Termination was possible if:
•Tribes had assimilated
•Tribes were willing to sever ties with the

government
•Able to survive economically with state assistance

Termination of Some Tribes / Relocation
•Over 100 small tribes were terminated. Tribes did not

have the business or tax base to finance various services
(e.g., health care, education, etc.).
•Many people left the reservations, moving to urban areas

(threatened to extinguish tribal culture).

ethnic heritage

•(1945-1961)

Indian Civil Rights Act 1968 / Self Determination Act 1975
CP
•Renunciation of the Termination Policy
•Terminated and unrecognized tribes may apply for

federal recognition
•Reaffirmed the rights of Indians “to remain Indians

while exercising their rights as Americans.” Encouraged
self determination among Native Americans.
Indian Civil Rights Act 1968 /
Self Determination/Education Assistance Act 1975
CP
Tribes could negotiate with the BIA to
administer their own education and social
service programs (e.g., health care and
housing).
• Native Americans were able to operate their

own schools
• Decreasing paternalistic relationship

(treatment more like sovereign
governments)
Pan-Indian Responses and Initiatives
The Society for American Indians (1911):
•Prior the Indian Reorganization Act

•Many Indians who were bicultural, recognized that
White-dominated industrial American society would
destroy all things Indians, unless Indians joined together
and created a “Pan-Indian Identity.”
•Integrationist (pursue goals within framework of
American Society)
•Well respected leaders (among whites and Native
Americans)
•Adopted a constitution to promote the advancement of
the Indian rights.
•Two major goals: (1) the abolition of the BIA; (2)
Citizenship to all Indians [achieved in 1924] / active for
13 years
New Tribalism or Red Power:
•During the 1960s and 70s, group of college students

organized to create a new policy concerning Indian
affairs.
•Stressed self-determination and pride in race and

cultural heritage.
•Fish-ins: State of Washington nullified eleven federal

treaties that had guaranteed the fishing rights of Indians
in that state.
•Alcatraz Island (1969)

1854 Treaty of Medicine Creek
1950s – Fishing regulations
1964 – Washington State – Survival of the Native

American Association
US Supreme Court confirmed treaty rights in 1968

•1969
•Right of Discovery
•Native Americans
(89)– offered $24 in
glass beads and
cloth (Manhattan
Island – 3 centuries
ago)
•Wanted our
government to fund
a cultural center and
university
•One year
occupation
•Public attention
The American Indian Movement (1970s):
•National organization that argued for Indian sovereignty

and the protection of Indian treaties.
•During the 80s and 90s, they organized and participated

in protests over land rights; the rights of tribes to sell
cigarettes without state or federal taxes; and misuse of
cultural symbols and religious rituals (e.g., team mascots,
gestures, and logos).
•Pushed for legal action.

The Current Situation
Language maintenance
Indian religious freedom
Traditions
The maintenance of tribal cultures and the

development of pan-Indian culture both serve to
assure that the Native Americans will have the
option to remain American Indians even as they
continue to assimilate the dominant culture.
Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1940
A violation of the Act can result in a fine of $100,000
($200,000 for organizations), imprisonment for one year, or
both, for a first offense. Penalties increase substantially for
additional offenses, and a second violation of this Act is a
felony.
American Indian Religious
Freedom Act
(1978)
•“Protect and preserve the

inherent right of American
Indians to believe, express,
and practice their traditional
religions.”
•Peyote
Native American Graves
Protection Act (1990)
This legislation is the result of decades of effort by
American Indians to protect the burial sites of their
ancestors against grave desecration and to recover
the remains of ancestors and sacred cultural objects
in the possession or under the control of federal
agencies and museums. 1990 About 200,000
The language of the Act and the legislative history
remains believed
surrounding it suggest that the intent was not to ban to be held in
scientific research, but to achieve the following museums and by
objectives: federal agencies.
(1) to repatriate American Indian remains and cultural Excerpted from: Renee
Kosslak, The Native
items that were stored in museum and agency American Graves
warehouses, or were on display as exhibits; Protection And
Repatriation Act: The
Death Knell For
(2) to prohibit, with limited exceptions, the intentional Scientific Study? , 24
American Indian Law
excavation of American Indian graves and * cultural Review 129-151, 129-
133, 151 (2000
items; and
(3) to suppress illegal trafficking in American Indian

remains and artifacts.
Education
Incomes
a pioneer of American public schools in the 19th
century
The long period of conflict with the dominant group,

unwillingness of tribes to accept dominant group
culture, and prejudice and discrimination, has hindered
Native Americans from participating equally in the
educational, occupational, and financial spheres.
Native Americans living on reservations, both

by choice and circumstance, are unlikely to
have very many contacts with non-Indians.
Native Americans living in urban areas may

have numerous opportunities to form
friendships with non-Indians.
• The “Termination” Policy

• (1945-1961)
Rates of intermarriage for Native

Americans are high compared with those
of other groups.
Areas with a large population of Native

Americans, 37% men marry outside of
their race
Areas with a small population of Native

Americans, 62% men marry outside of
their race
SOC 269
Cluster #6: Asian American

Experiences
Oriental Why Oriental is a Bad Word
•It brings up unfortunate chapters in our global history
•It has problematic racial and political connotations
•It’s more appropriately used for inanimate objects
(Yang & Gan, 1997)

General Similarities in Culture
•Stresses group membership over individual
self-interest
•Loyalty to group, conformity to societal

expectations, and respect for one’s superiors
• Dual Culture Conflict
•Stresses sensitivity to the opinions and

judgments of others
•Avoiding public embarrassment / Saving

face
•Patriarchal (i.e., dominant male /

subordinate female)
The Asian American Experience
Chinese Prejudice Current

Immigration: Americans &
1840s & Status /
Japanese
Americans
Discrimination Theoretical
Framewor
ks
Exam III
Immigration: Southeast Prejudice
1960s & Current
Asians
Discrimination Status
The Current Situation :

Sub Assimilation Processes
Sojourner
Immigrant
Refugee
The Asian American
Experience
Exceptional Educational Achievements
Phenomenal Economic Upward Mobility
Model Yellow
Minority Peril
Myth Discour
se
1. If assimilated = why minority?

2. A model for who? Economic Threat
The Model Minority Myth
Criticisms:
1. Primary purpose is to support and strengthen the

notion that the main cause of economic and social
problems among racial minorities is a lack of
effort, rather than discrimination / racism.
2. Assists to align racial minority groups against one

another.
3. It divert attention away from those who have

downwardly mobile.
4. Distracts attention from the fact that more

established Asian ethnic groups are still the
victims of various forms of discrimination.
“Whites”
Whites
New whites (Russians, Albanians, etc.)
Assimilated white Latinos
Some multiracials
Assimilated (urban) Native Americans
A few Asian-origin people
“Honorary Whites”
Light-skinned Latinos
Japanese Americans / Chinese
Americans
Korean Americans
Asian Indians
Middle Eastern Americans
Most multiracials
“Collective Black”
Vietnamese Americans / Filipino
Hmong / Laotian Americans
Dark-skinned Latinos
Blacks
New West Indian and African
Immigrants
Reservation-bound Native Americans
Deconstructing the Model Minority Myth
INCOME:
•A high percentage of urbanization (higher cost of living) among

Asians. Compare family income of people who live in the same city.
•Example: Los Angeles: $42,726 (whites) / $33,445 (Asians)

San Francisco: $47,547 (whites) / $38,294 (Asians)
•Asian families tend to have more workers in the household
•Example: 21.3% of Vietnamese families have 3 or more

workers in the family than compared to whites (13.4%)
•More accurate measure would be per capita income.

Deconstructing the Model Minority Myth
OCCUPATION / EDUCATION:
•Despite high levels of education, studies show that Asians have

a hard time getting jobs that match their level of education
(often overqualified or under-utilize their education).
•When lumped together, statistics give distorted picture.

Education attainment varies by Asian ethnic group.
The Asian American
Experience
Model Yellow
Minori Peril
ty Discour
Myth se
Group Threat Model
Economic Threat
Dominant Group
Minority Group Competition Threat Discourse

Size Increases
Minority Group
•Sense of superiority
•Feeling that the subordinate group

is intrinsically different
•Feeling of proprietary claim to

certain privilege and advantages
•Feeling of suspicion that the

subordinate group harbors designs
on prerogatives of the dominant
race
The Asian American Experience
Chinese Prejudice Current

Immigration: Americans &
1840s & Status /
Japanese
Americans
Discrimination Theoretical
Framewor
ks
Exam III
Immigration: Southeast Prejudice
1960s & Current
Asians
Discrimination Status
The Current Situation :

Sub Assimilation Processes
Chinese / Chinese - Americans
Push versus Pull
Early Immigration (1800s)
Push: Colonization
Pull: Gold Rush (1849)

Transcontinental Railroad (1860s)
(Economy was rapidly growing)

Chinese Americans
Push versus Pull Sojourners:
Immigrants
who intend Immigrant
to return to Refugee
Early Immigration (1800s) their country.
Push: Colonization
Pull: Gold Rush (1849)

Transcontinental Railroad (1860s)

Male – Female Ratio
1860: 1,858
1
1870: 1,284
1
1880: 2,106
1
•Organized Prostitution 1890: 2,678

1
•Anti-miscegenation (14 states)
1900: 1,887
1
Chinese Americans
Push versus Pull Sojourners:
Immigrants Immigr
who intend ant
to return to Refuge
Early Immigration (1800s) their country. e
Push: Colonization
Pull: Gold Rush (1849) Chinese

Transcontinental Railroad (1860s) Exclusion
Act of 1882
Creation of
Chinatowns
Yellow Peril = Group Threat
Hypothesis
Population
Increase
Competition
Threat
Discourse /
Prejudice and Chinese Exclusion Act
Discrimination (1882)
Barred Chinese
immigration (laborers) –
The Ethnic Enclave: Chinatown
(marginal participation)
•Chinatowns offered safety of urban anonymity and
neighborhoods where culture could be maintained /
‘invisible minority’
•Chinatowns became the economic, cultural and social

centers of the community (tsu [clans– families with
common ancestors])
•Provided social and welfare services (hui kuan –

benevolent associations – based on district of origin in
China)
•Tongs – secret societies (provide illegal drugs,

gambling, and prostitution)
Second Generation Chinese Americans
•Delayed effect
•The second generation was much more

influenced by the larger culture
•They looked beyond the enclaves to fill

their needs
•Educational and occupational pursuits

Chinese Exclusion Act
Yellow
Peril
Discour
se
Gentlemen’s
Japanese Americans Agreement
(1908)
Picture-Bride
Invasion
Early Immigration
1882 Chinese Exclusion Japanese

Act Occupations
/ Alien Land
Prior to 1884 (students) Laws
Primogeniture: System
of Inheritance Exclusion
Internment
West Coast (Hawaii,
California, Oregon,
and Washington)
Established Japan
towns
Integrated in urban
areas
Often viewed as wage

depressors (worked for
lower wages)
Dominant Group
Minority Group
Competition Threat Discourse
Size Increases
Minority Group

Gentlemen’s Agreement
(1908)
•Anti-Japanese campaign
•San Francisco School Board orders a separate school for

Orientals
•Compromise between Japan and the U.S.
•Repeal school segregation
•Government of Japan would issue passports to the U.S.

only to non-laborers; laborers who lived in America but had
been visiting Japan; the wives, parents, and children of
those who had settled in America
Gentlemen’s
Japanese Americans Agreement
(1908)
Picture-Bride
Invasion
Early Immigration
Japanese
Prior to 1884 (students) Occupations
After 1884 / Alien Land
(laborers/sojourners) Laws
Primogeniture: System
of Inheritance Exclusion
Internment
The “Picture-Bride Invasion”
Japanese Picture Brides at Angel Island (circa 1919)
Between 1909 and 1923: 45,706 Japanese women arrived in the US

Japanese celery
harvesters, California,
circa 1920
Alien Land Laws (1913)
•Sense of threat
•Act did not specifically mention any

nationality / prohibited ownership (or long
term leases) by those who were ‘ineligible to
citizenship.’
Alien Land Law
•During the early 1900s, the Japanese moved

increasingly into agriculture (West Coast)
•Sense of threat
•Act did not specifically mention any

nationality / prohibited ownership by those
who were ‘ineligible to citizenship.’
•Registered their land in the names of their

children or trusted American friends
Exclusion
•Gentlemen’s Agreement did not stop

growth / Alien Land Law did not prevent
Japanese from increasing their land holdings
•The Emergency Quota Act of 1921

(established a quota for many countries 
denied a quota for Japan
“The set quota was 3% of
the number of persons
from that country living in
the United States in 1910,
according to United States
Census figures. Once the
numbers had been
calculated, it equated to
about 360,000 immigrants
each year.”
December 7,
1941
Internment
•The first stage removed people from their homes to hastily

prepared assembly centers / Second stage moved to
relocation centers (concentration camps)
•Legal Issues: Military necessity v. Racism
•1988: Congress passed a reparation bill / formal apology /

a tax-free payment of about $20,000 (60,000 surviving
detainees)
Internment
•The first stage removed people from their homes to hastily

prepared assembly centers / Second stage moved to
relocation centers (concentration camps)
•Legal Issues: Military necessity v. Racism

General DeWitt’s Explanation on
the Decision to Evacuate
The Japanese race is an enemy race and while many

second and third generation Japanese born on
United States soil, possessed of United States
Citizenship have “Americanized,” the racial strains
are undiluted… It therefore allows that along the
vital Pacific Coast over 112,000 potential enemies,
of Japanese extraction, are at large today. There are
disturbing indications that they are organized and
ready for concerted action at a favorable
opportunity. The very fact that no sabotage has
taken place to date is a disturbing and confirming
indication that such action will be taken (quoted by
Rostow 1945: 140). Korematsu v. United
States, 323 U.S. 214
(1944)
•120,000 Japanese were evacuated
•Two-thirds were citizens; three-fourth were under

the age of 25
•1,118 were evacuated from Hawaii
•219 voluntary resides (white spouses)
•5,981 were born in the camps
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5_rk3
RP5KQs
•Less family cohesion
•Loss of power (Issei – 1st generation)
•Many families abandoned farming

•Second / Third Generations - Education
•Founded in 1929
•JACL is the oldest and largest Asian American civil

rights organization in the United States
•Monitors civil and human rights violations

•Implements strategies
•1988: Congress passed a reparation bill / formal

apology / a tax-free payment of about $20,000
(60,000 surviving detainees)
Internment
3 ½ years
1988 Congress
passed Reparation
Bill
$20,000 tax free

dollars
Wednesday, November
2, 2011
Congress finally
honors Nisei soldiers
of WWII
Japanese-American
veterans of World War
II salute the flag
during a Congressional
Gold Medal ceremony
Wednesday in
442nd Regimental Combat Team Washington, D.C.
•Most decorated unit in US military history
•9,486 Purple Hearts
•21 Medals of Honor
•14,000 men served

Southeast
Asia
Brunei
Burma
Cambodi
a
Indonesi
a
Laos
Malaysia
Singapor
e
Vietnam
Vietnamese Immigration to the United States
1951 - 2000
1951 – 1960: 335
1961 – 1970: 4,340
1971 – 1980: 172,280
1981 – 1990: 280,782
1991 – 2000: 286,145
Total: 744,422
The Thirty Year War
In Vietnam: 1945
•Vietnam was an independent country until French colonialism

(1863).
•Two opposing groups of Vietnamese nationalists were organized
against foreign domination (one communist and other
anticommunist).
•French rule was terminated with Geneva Agreements of 1954
(Vietnam was split into North and South Vietnam– individuals had to
choose).
•South Vietnam was supported by the US.
•National Liberation Front (Vietcong) launched guerrilla war within
South Vietnam (supported by North Vietnam).
•US continued to support South Vietnam – President Lyndon Johnson
ordered a military buildup in 1963 (led to full-scale war).
McLemore and Romo, 2005

The Thirty Year War
In Vietnam: 1945
•Although war centered on Vietnam, it also included Cambodia and

Laos.
•In the US, the combined effects of the civil rights protests, antiwar
protests, and opposition to the protestors produced turmoil.
•In 1969, President Nixon started to withdraw US troops. US
participation still lasted for six more years. Participation ended when
in 1975, the South Vietnamese army collapsed under the attacks of
the Vietcong and Vietminh.
•Insurgent group in Cambodia toppled the American-backed
Cambodian government.
North Vietnam/Viet Cong military and civilian

533,000
war dead
Grand total of war deaths: Vietnam, Cambodia,
1,450,000
and Laos (1954-1975)
McLemore and Romo, 2005

The Thirty Year War First Wave
In Vietnam: 1945
Middle class / migrating for political rather than

economic reasons
college graduates, urban dwellers, and families
-Over 140,000 refugees
Vietnam Gua Refugee Sponsors

m Camps •Average cost for
•California resettling a family
•Pennsylva was around $5,600
nia
•Arkansas
•Florida
•1st Wave: Political Refugees (political leaders, military
officers, and skilled professionals -- well-educated, spoke
English, higher incomes)
Push: Political instability, increasing corruption, famine

conditions, and suspicions against ethnic ChineseMcLemore and Romo, 2005
in Vietnam.
Push and Pull Factors
1st Wave (1975)
2nd Wave (1979)
•2nd Wave: ‘Boat People’
Push: Political instability, increasing corruption,

famine conditions, and suspicions against ethnic
Chinese in Vietnam.
Because of American
legislation passed in 1988,
a new wave of
immigration is bringing
the Amerasian children to
the United States in record
numbers. Last year 5,134
arrived in this country and
even more are expected
this year.
CAROL LAWSON
Published: April 18, 1991
Cultural Differences
•Free will versus predestination

(deterministic life force)
•Configuration of celestial bodies at time of

conception impacts the character of an
individual
•Phuc Duc: “amount of good fortune that

comes from meritorious or self-sacrificing
action”
•One’s actions impact immediate family and

future loved ones
The Current
Situation
Value-Compatibility Theory
Middle Man Minority Thesis
Ethnic Enclave Theory
The degree of acculturation varies from group to

group. Japanese Americans are probably the most
acculturated of the Asian American groups.
“Today 59% of the U.S. Asian population was born

in another country. That share rises to 73% among
adult Asians.”
PEW Report
Secondary Structural Assimilation
•Asian Americans are highly urbanized / less

concentrated in the central city neighborhoods / a
large number are moving into the suburbs of
metropolitan areas
•Asian Americans compare favorable with society-

wide standards for education achievement
(differences exists)
•Jobs and Income: As a single category, Asian

Americans have achieved success and equality
(differences exists / closer examination warranted)
Primary and Marital Structural Assimilation
High rates of interracial friendship choices
Out-marriage rates for Asian Americans (15% - 34%)

are higher than African Americans’ (2%) and
Hispanics’ (13%) rates.
The degree of acculturation varies from group to

group. Japanese Americans are probably the most
acculturated of the Asian American groups.
Minority Group “Success”
The Cultural View versus the Structural View
The Cultural View
Value Compatibility: Critique

Significant
compatibility “Success” story
between value diverts attention
system in country of away from
origin and value continuing
system of American discrimination and
middle class culture other problems
Family and Creates a stereotype

Community that can be used as
Cohesion: The weapon / blames the
transmission of victim
traditional values
was accomplished Masks diversity
Minority Group “Success”
The Structural View
Middleman Minority Thesis:
Some minorities occupy an intermediate rather

than low-status position. Based on the idea that
sojourning is necessary ingredient:
•Sojourners work hard and are thrifty in order to

amass capital
•Sojourners take risks in hope of great gain
•Sojourners concentrate their funds in lines of
work that permit easy liquidation
Asian American “Success”
The Structural View
Ethnic Enclave Theory:
Based on the idea that immigrant workers may be

part of a special type of economy that provides
unusual routes of upward mobility.
The ethnic enclave is based on community

solidarity, the presence of a pool of
disadvantaged ethnic workers, and vertical and
horizontal integration

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SOC 269

Cluster #4: African American

Early Experiences: The Civil Rights The Current

•Ideology of individualism was encouraged and

•Symbol of unlimited opportunities

•Homestead Act (1862) – offered cheap land – 160 acres

•Opportunity for wealth = personal ingenuity

Early Experiences: The Current

•Victims of direct harm are dead

•Perpetrators are diffuse

•Some of the actual harms were legal at the time they

•The causal chain of harm is long and complex

•1619: Twenty Africans arrive in Jamestown, Virginia, as

•Emerging British Colonies in North America were based

•1660s: First slave laws were enacted.

The Conception of Race

• 10.7 million survived the Middle Passage – Arrived in

• 388,000 – North America

• In 1850, United States Census figured show that there were

(1) Slavery was for life • In 1850, United

(4) Slaves were denied rights

(5) Coercion was used to

1. A slave could not marry or even meet with a free Black.

Article 1, Sections 2 and 9, which apportion taxes on the states using

Article 1, Section 8, which gives Congress authority to suppress slave

Article 1, Section 9, which prevents the slave trade from being

Article 1, Sections 9 and 10, which exempt goods made by slaves

Article 4, Section 2, which requires the return of fugitive slaves

Article 4, Section 4, which stipulates that the federal government must

•Their lack of Christianity.

•They were forced to live in a foreign land and lacked organization.

•Indians remained culturally and politically organized. They were numerical

•Ideological support that black Africans were a different form of humanity.

African Americans Mexican Americans Native Americans

Forced Minority Status

•Forced entry into a territory and its

•Alteration or destruction of the indigenous

•The domination of the indigenous

•Justification of such activities with highly

•Subjected to massive inequalities and attacks on their culture.

•Perpetuated and reinforced through their distinctive physical traits.

•Paternalistic relations / Caste system

•Running away (Article 4 / Section 2 – requires the return of

•Rebellions (Article 4 / Section 4 – federal government must

•Deliberate slowing up of work

•Feigning illness and pregnancy

The Supreme Court ruled that African

They could never become citizens of the US

The Constitution did not protect them

Discrimination Identifiability or Distinctiveness

•Federal government versus 11 Southern states (right

•One of every 25 American men perished in the war.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863): Proclaimed slaves to be free and authorized

13th Amendment (1865): The legal institution of slavery was abolished.

Minority Group Threat Model

•Feeling that the subordinate group is

•Feeling of proprietary claim to certain