Chapter 4

Determination of State of Damage

1
Introduction

The state of damage of a machinery or one of its elements is the

undesired deviation from the required state fixed in the design

procedures.
Knowledge of the state of damage in connection with the

determination of the survival probability is essential for setting

the date and kind of maintenance measures to be taken.
 Knowledge of the state of damage provides a collection of data

or information about the state of machinery, which in turn can

be2 used for setting meaningful maintenance routines.
 Cont…

The state of damage of an equipment depends on:

kind and Conditions of damage, and

Duration of Operation of Equipment

 Determination of the state of damage is part of

Technical Diagnostics and Maintenance

Technique.

3
 Technical Diagnostics
 Technical diagnostics is the determination of the technical state

or state of damage of an equipment, evaluation of the state and

collection of information for deciding the date and kind of
maintenance .
 This is normally done without disassembling while the equipment

is in operation.
 Conclusions arrived at about the state of damage of an

equipment are probabilistic, and the accuracy of results obtained

depends on the accuracy of the method of investigation used,
sampling techniques and measuring techniques.
4
 Schematic representation of technical
diagnostics

5
 Measuring Values for the State of
Damage
 Direct measured quantities

 The direct measuring technique determines the difference between

the initial state and the state after wear process.

 The measurements taken can be direct linear, volumetric or mass

quantities.
 These measured quantities can be absolute or related to
duration of operation.
 Absolute measurement gives the amount of wear as an average

worn out thickness.

 Related measurement gives amount of wear per unit time of

6
operation.
 Cont…
 Direct measurement gives dimensions of parts. If the

wear is not constant over a surface, the measurement

should be done in different planes with different
orientations.
 Direct measurement is usually done after disassembly.

But it can also be made without disassembling provided

there is easy access to the measured quantities

7
 Indirect measuring quantities

 During the operation of a machine or parts

of it, certain signals are produced which are

related to the state of operation of the machine.

 These signals, which are known as the diagnostic

parameters, if properly analyzed provide some

information regarding the state of the machine.
 It should be noted that influence from the environment

introduces errors in the measured results

8
 Condition monitoring techniques
Depending on how the monitoring is done, the techniques can be
classified as:

A.On-load monitoring techniques: mostly carried out

without interruption of operation
 visual, aural, tactile inspection of accessible components
 temperature monitoring
 lubricant monitoring
 leak detection
 vibration/sound monitoring
 corrosion monitoring
9
 B. Off-load monitoring Techniques:

Off-load monitoring techniques require shutdown of the

unit. These include:
 visual, aural and tactile inspection of normally inaccessible

or moving parts;
 crack detection;

 leak detection;

 vibration testing ;

 corrosion monitoring.

10
 Condition Monitoring Techniques
 Most failures give some warning before they occur. This warning is

called potential failure.

 Potential failure is defined as an identifiable physical condition which

indicates that a functional failure is either about to occur or it is in the

process of occurring.
 A functional failure is defined as the inability of an equipment in

meeting a specified performance standard.

 Techniques of detecting potential failures are known as on-
condition maintenance tasks. This is so because equipment is left in
service on the condition that they meet specified performance
standards
11
Potential Failures and On-condition
Maintenance:
 If evidence can be found that some component/equipment is in the final stage

of failure, it may be possible to take action to prevent complete failure and/or

its consequences.
 The P-F curve is employed to show what happens in the final stages of failures.

 The P-F curve shows:

 where failure in the equipment starts to occurs;

 where equipment condition deteriorates to the point at which the failure can be detected; and

finally,
 where the equipment has failed indicating functional failure.

 P point at which it is possible to detect whether failure is or is about to occur is

known as potential failure. F point where failure has taken place – functional

12 failure
 The P-F Diagram

13
 Cont…
 Between points P and F it may be possible to take action to prevent functional

failure or to avoid consequences of functional failure.

 Tasks designed to detect potential failures are known as on-condition tasks.

 On-condition tasks entail checking for potential failures so that action can be

taken to prevent functional failure or to avoid the consequences of the

functional failure. This is known as predictive maintenance or condition-based
maintenance.
 On-condition tasks are carried out at intervals less than the P-F interval, where

the P-F interval is the interval between the occurrence of a potential failure
and its deterioration into functional failure.

14
  The P-F interval is the interval between the occurrence
of a potential failure and its deterioration into
functional failure

15
 Cont…
 The P-F interval is the warning period, or the lead time to failure, or the failure

development period.
 The on-condition task is done at intervals which are less than the P-F interval,

usually at a frequency equal to half the P-F interval. This ensures that the
inspection will detect the potential failure before functional failure takes place.
 In applying the P-F curve to condition monitoring, the sooner a potential failure

can be detected, the longer the P-F interval would be.

 Longer P-F interval would entail that the frequency interval for inspection

would be done less often. Hence there would be more time to take appropriate
actions to avoid the consequence of failure.

16
 Categories of Condition Monitoring Techniques

 Condition monitoring techniques are designed to

detect specific symptoms which are related to the

state of damage of the equipment.

17
 1. Dynamic Monitoring
 Dynamic monitoring detects potential failures which cause
emission of abnormal energy in the form of waves such as
vibration and noise.
 Equipment which contain moving parts that vibrate are
monitored dynamically. This is done by measuring how much the
system vibrates.
 Techniques employed
Broad band vibration analysis
(changes in vibration characteristics are monitored)
Constant bandwidth analysis
(changes in vibration characteristics are monitored by using
accelerometers)
Real time analysis
(measurement of vibrational signals; shock analysis)
Ultrasonic analysis
18 (changes in sound pattern are monitored)
 2. Particle Monitoring

 Particle monitoring detects potential failures which cause

particles of different sizes and shapes to be released into the

environment in which the component is operating.
 These include wear particles and corrosion particles. Examples of

Techniques employed in particle monitoring are:

 Ferrography

 (Wear and corrosion particles are monitored by taking a representative

sample of oil)

 Real time ferromagnetic sensors

 Graded filtration

19  Sedimentation
 3. Chemical Monitoring
 Chemical monitoring detects potential failures which cause traceable quantities of

chemical elements to be released in to the environment.

 This technique is used to detect elements in the lubricating oil which indicate

occurrence of potential failure elsewhere in the system.

 They are employed to detect wear, corrosion, leakage. Some of the techniques are :

 Atomic emission spectroscopy

 X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy

 Infrared spectroscopy

 Electro-chemical corrosion monitoring

 Exhaust emission analyzers

 Colour indicator

20
 4. Physical Effects Monitoring
 Physical effects monitoring includes changes in the physical appearance or structure of

equipment which can be detected directly.

 The monitoring techniques involved detect potential failures in the form of cracks,

wear, corrosion, etc. Some of the techniques employed are:

 Liquid dye penetrants

 Magnetic particle inspection

 Ultrasonic techniques

 X-ray radiography

 Light probes

 Deep-probe endoscope

 Oil odor

 Strain gauge

 Viscosity monitoring
21
 5. Temperature Monitoring

 These techniques look for potential failures which cause

rise in temperature of an equipment itself.

 Monitoring techniques included in here, among others,

are:
 Infrared scanning

 Temperature indicating painting

22
 6. Electrical Effects Monitoring
 These techniques look for changes in resistance,
conductivity, etc. The techniques includes the following.
 Electrical resistance monitoring

 Potential monitoring

 Power factor testing

 Breaker timing testing

23
 General Purpose Monitoring Techniques
 Thermal, lubricant and vibration monitoring techniques are

considered to be general purpose monitoring techniques.

 In each of these three techniques, the parameter being

monitored contains information that has been transmitted

through the machine.

24
 1. Lubricant monitoring

 The oil which circulates through a machine carries with it evidence

of the condition of parts encountered.

 Examination of the oil and any particles it has carried with it
allows monitoring of the machine on-load or at shut-down.

 Lubricant examination covers

 debris deposited,

 debris in suspension, and

 condition of oil.

25
 a. Examination of debris collected

 Debris deposited are the larger particles carried along by the

lubricant which can be collected by filters or magnetic collectors.

 Examination of the debris under the microscope to establish size
and shape provides a good information regarding the state of
damage of the machine.

 Debris in suspension are the smaller particles collected by the

lubricant which remain in suspension.

 Examination of the debris in suspension gives the earliest warning of

component damage.
26
 Cont…
 A change in the rate of debris collection indicates the change in

the condition of the machine as related to wearing out.

 Shape of debris collected carries information as to the wear

mechanism taking place.

 Normal shape of wear particles tends to be flat;

 cutting or abrasive wear results in spiral shaped debris;

 surface fatigue failures produce larger angular particles.

27
 b. Condition of oil used
 Condition of used oil itself can be examined for indication of other

malfunctions.
 foaming of oil: cause is excessive churning or passage under pressure through

restrict
 darkened colour of oil: caused by oxidation of oil, excess temperature, combustion or

other chemical products reacting with the oil used.

 Malfunctions that can be detected by lub monitoring

 damages of transmission components like gears, shafts, bearings, etc.

 blockage of ducts, pipes, etc.

28
 2. Thermal monitoring
 Monitoring the temperature of a component in a machine is

undertaken for one of three purposes:

I. To enable temperature control of a process
II. To detect increase in heat generation due to some malfunction
such as damage of bearings
III. To detect changes in the heat transmitted through and out of the
body of the machine caused by a change in some component such
as failed coolant circulation or ash build-up in boilers, etc.

29
 Cont…
 Temperature monitoring can be carried out

 at a point within the body of the plant (eg. measurement of

water temperature in a boiler),

 or at the surface of a component (eg. bearing housing).

 Temperature monitoring devices are diverse and can be

classified as:
 contact sensors, and

 non-contact sensors (pyrometers)

30
 Malfunctions monitored thermally
 Possible areas where thermal monitoring can be applied.
 Bearing damages which result in heat generation and heating of the bearing unit and

other units that come in contact with the bearing unit.

 Failure of coolant or lubrication can be detected by a temperature rise of

appropriate bodies; such failures could result from pump failure, drive fault,
blockage in piping, valves or filter, or damaged heat exchanger.
 Incorrect heat generation like in internal combustion engines.

 Build-up of unwanted materials such as sediment is pipes, ash in boilers or ducts, etc.

 Damage of insulating materials.

 Faults of electric components.

31
 3. Vibration/noise monitoring

 Changes in vibration characteristics are indicative of trouble.

 The causes of vibration are

 unbalanced rotating and reciprocating parts,

 looseness in the fit between components,

 deflection of load carrying members,

 misalignment,

 damages in transmission components, etc.

 The equipment employed for vibration monitoring are vibro-

meters and accelerometers of wide variety.

32
 Cont…

Possible faults that can be detected by vibration

monitoring include:
 wear or failure of bearings;

 presence of unbalance in moving parts;

 changes in clearances;

 cracks in shafts and other moving components subjected to

cyclic loads.

33
 The End!!

34