Engineering Materials

CE-107

Army Public College of Management &

Sciences
Affiliated with University of Engineering
& Technology, Taxila
 Building Stones
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 Building Stones
• Stones used in most historical places
– Pyramids of Egypt
– Taj Mahal of Agra, India
– Great wall of China
– Greek and Roman structures
– Quaid’s Mausoleum in Karachi
– Shahi mosque in Lahore
– Forts at Rohtas, Lahore
– Grand Trunk Road
– Lloyd’s Barrage at Sukkur
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 Building Stones
• Stone as building material lost its
importance due to
– Advent of cement and steel – less bulky,
stronger and more durable
– Structural strength can not be rationally
analyzed
– Transportation difficulties
– Dressing problems

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 Building Stone
• Stone: A construction material derived
from rocks in the earth’s crust and mixture
of two or more minerals.
• Mineral is a substance which is formed by
the natural inorganic process and
possesses a definite chemical composition
and molecular structure.

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 Civil Engineering Uses
• Construction of residential and public buildings
• Construction of dams, weirs, harbors, bridge
abutments, etc
• Face work of structures for appearance and
ornamental value
• Road metal and railway ballast
• Aggregate for concrete
• Stone dust as substitute for sand
• Thin slabs for roofing, flooring and pavements
• Limestone for manufacture of lime, cement, etc

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 Classification of Rocks
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 Classification of Rocks
Rocks

Geological Physical Chemical Practical

Granite,
Igneous Stratified Argillaceous
Basalts

Sedimentary Un-Stratified Siliceous Marble

Limestone,
Metamorphic Foliated Calcareous Sandstone,
Slate

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 Classification of Rocks
• Geological classification
– Igneous rocks (primary, un-stratified, eruptive)
– cooled down molten volcanic lava (magma).
Basalts and granites.
– Sedimentary rocks (aqueous, stratified) –
gradually deposited disintegrated rocks. Sand
stones and lime stones
– Metamorphic rocks – transformed due to
great heat and pressure. Granite to gneiss,
lime stone to marble, shale to slate

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 Classification of Rocks
• Physical classification
– Stratified rocks – separable distinct layers.
Cleavage plane of split visible. Slate,
sandstone, lime stone
– Un-stratified rocks – no sign of strata, cannot
be easily split into slabs. Granite, basalt, trap
– Foliated rocks – having tendency to split up
only in a definite direction

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 Classification of Rocks
• Chemical Classification
– Siliceous rocks – containing silica SiO2 (sand)
and silicates. Granite, basalt, trap, quartzite,
gneiss, syenite, etc
– Argillaceous rocks – containing clay or
alumina Al2O3. Slate, laterite, etc
– Calcareous rocks – containing calcium
carbonate or lime. Limestone, marble,
dolomite, etc
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 Classification of Rocks
• Practical Classification
– Granites
– Basalts
– Marbles
– Sandstones
– Slates
– Etc, etc

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 Stone Mountain, Atlanta, USA
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Igneous Rocks
 Red Granite

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• Red Granite is a kind of red
granite quarried in China. This stone is
especially good for Counter tops and bars,
Interior wall panels, Water walls and
fountains, stairs, monuments and other
design projects.

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 Vesicular Basalt

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• Basalts are most commonly vesicular.
The drop in pressure that a magma
experiences as it flows from underground
to the Earth's surface allows water and
gases in the lava to form bubbles. If the
bubbles do not get large enough to pop,
they are frozen in the lava as vesicles.

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Sedimentary Rocks
 Old Red Sandstone

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• Red sandstone is that color because of
the high levels of iron that have oxidized,
or rusted. Since the iron particles are
trapped amidst the quartz particles, it
tinges the stone to create that distinctive
color.

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 Red Devonian Sandstone

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 Basalt and Sandstone

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 Limestone and Slate

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Metamorphic Rocks
 Green Slate

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• In slates that appear green, this is due to
chlorite – a group of common sheet
silicate minerals that form during the early
stages of metamorphism. They most often
form in rock environments where
minerals are altered by heat, pressure and
chemical activity.

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 Metamorphic Rocks

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 Metamorphic Rocks

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 Gneiss

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 Granitic Gneisses

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 Granitic Gneisses

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Miscellaneous Sedimentary
Material
 Glacially Transported Potpourri

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 Glacially Transported Potpourri

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 Chert Nodules (Flints)

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 Chert Nodules (Flints)

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 Chert Nodules

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 Cenzoic Coral

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 Stone Masonry

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 Characteristics of Good
Building Stones
• Appearance & color – uniform color, lighter shades
preferred, free from clay holes, bands or spots
• Structure – Not dull in appearance, crystalline
homogenous close grained is good, stratification should
not be visible, fine grained for carving
• Weight – heavier are compact, less porous, good for
hydraulic structures
• Strength – generally compressive strength needed,
igneous rock stones are stronger
• Hardness– resistance to abrasion, friction and wear.
Hardness scale 1 to 10
• Toughness – Withstand impact, vibrations, moving loads
• Dressing – uniform texture and softness for fine surface
finish
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 Characteristics of Good
Building Stones
• Porosity and Absorption – exposed surface absorbs rain
water forming acids causing crumbling action. Cyclic
freezing and thawing of pore water
• Seasoning – hardening and weathering affect due to
evaporation of quarry sap and formation of crystalline
film. 6 to 12 months for proper seasoning
• Weathering – resistance to action of weather
• Resistance to fire – free from calcium carbonate or
oxides of iron
• Durability – compact, homogenous and less absorptive
is more durable
• Cost – quarrying, transportation, dressing and
installation

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 Moh’s Hardness Scale
• 1 Talc, scratched easily by thumb nail
• 2 Gypsum, scratched by thumb nail
• 3 Calcite, scratched not by thumb nail but by
knife
• 4 Fluorite, cut by knife with difficulty
• 5 Apatite, cut by knife with difficulty more than 4
• 6 Orthoclase, cut by knife with great difficulty
• 7 Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches
glass
• 8 Topaz
• 9 Sapphire
• 10 Diamond

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Evaluation of Stones
 Tests of Stones
• Weathering test of natural building stones
• Durability test of natural building stones
• Water absorption and porosity test
• Test for determination of true specific
gravity
• Compressive strength test

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 Selection of Sample for Tests
• A truly representative sample of grade of stone should
be selected
• Sample may be selected from quarried stone or natural
rock
• Separate samples weighing at least 25 kg each shall be
collected from differing strata
• Test pieces for toughness or compressive strength test
shall be at least 10.0 x 12.5 x 7.5 cm in size
• Test pieces shall be free from seams or fractures
• In case of field stones and boulders separate samples
shall be selected of all classes of stones based on visual
inspection
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 Weathering Test
• Specimen
– 5 cm diameter, 5 cm high cylinders
– 5 cm cubes
– Smooth finished, edges rounded to 0.3 cm
• Three test specimens oven dried at 105 ± 5°C for 24 hrs
and cooled in desiccators down to room temp 20 to 30°C
• W1 weight of cooled and dried test piece, weighed to
nearest 0.01 gm
• Specimens submerged in water for 24 hrs at room temp
• W2 immersed and freely suspended sample weight
• Remove the specimen from water, wipe off surface water
• W3 weight after removal from water
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 Weathering Test
• Place the specimen in a glass dish in solution of
25 ml of water and 2 gm of powdered gypsum
• Specimen dish kept in oven at 105 ± 5°C for 5
hrs till gypsum powder becomes dry
• Specimen cooled down to room temp 25 ± 5°C
• Heating and cooling cycle is repeated 30 times
• Specimen removed and cleaned with wire brush
• Specimen kept immersed in water for 24 hrs
• W4 weight of sample in air after 30 cycles
• W5 weight of sample freely suspended,
immersed in water
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 Weathering Test
W3  W1 W  W1
A1   100 and A2  4 100
W1 W1
W4  W3
Increase in Absorption %  A2  A1  100
W1
W3  W2 W4  W5
V1  and V2 
d d
(W4  W5 )  (W3  W2 )
Increase in Volume %  100
W3  W2
• A1: Original absorption of specimen on 24 hr immersion in
water
• A2: Final absorption after 30 cycles
• V1: Original volume after 24 hrs immersion in water
• V2: final volume after 30 cycles
• d: density of water at observation temperature

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 Durability Test
• Specimen
– 5 cm diameter, 5 cm high cylinders or 5 cm cubes
– Smooth finished, edges rounded to 0.3 cm
• At least three test samples dried for 24 hrs and
weighed as W1
• Samples suspended in solution of 14% sodium
sulphate decahydrate (density 1.055 kg/m3) for
18 hrs at room temperature
• Samples air dried for 30 minutes
• Samples now oven dried for 24 hrs at 105 ± 5°C

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 Durability Test
• Samples cooled down to room temperature to
complete one cycle
• Weight W2 at the end of every 5th cycle noted
and 30 cycles completed
• Durability expressed as

W1  W2
Change in Weight   100
W1

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Water Absorption and Porosity Test
• Sample preparation
– Sufficient material is crushed
– Material passing 20 mm sieve is retained
– Material washed to remove dust
• About 1 kg material is immersed and soaked in
distilled water at room temperature for 24 hrs
• Entrapped air is removed by vigorous rotational
motion
• Sample taken out of water and spread on cloth
exposed to atmosphere in shade for ten minutes
• Surface of test pieces dried with cloth

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Water Absorption and Porosity Test
• On drying of surface, sample weight W1
recorded
• Distilled water added to sample in a graduated
glass cylinder of in portions of 100 ml till level of
water reaches 1000 ml mark
• Entrapped air is removed after each addition of
water
• Total quantity of added water is recorded as W2
• Sample taken out of cylinder and dried in
desiccators at 100°C for 24 hrs
• W3 recorded when sample is cooled down
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Water Absorption and Porosity Test
W1  W3
Water Absorption   100
W3
W1  W3
Apparant Porosity  100
1000  W2
W3
Apparant Specific Gravity 
1000  W2
• W1: Initial weight of dried sample
• W2: Weight of water consumed in saturation
• W3: Final weight of sample after drying for 24 hrs
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 True Specific Gravity Test
• Crush 0.5 kg of thoroughly washed specimen to 3 mm
size, mix and make samples of 50 gm each
• Sample ground in agate mortar to pass 150 microns
sieve
• Sample is dried at 100°C, cooled in desiccators
• Specific gravity bottle is cleaned, washed, dried, cooled
and weighed (W1)
• About 15 gms sample placed in specific gravity bottle
closed with stopper and whole weighed as W2
• Three fourths of specific gravity bottle filled with distilled
water

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 True Specific Gravity Test
• Bottle boiled for 10 minutes while removing entrapped air
• Bottle cooled to room temperature, filled with water,
stoppered and weighed as W3
• Bottle emptied, washed, filled with only distilled water,
stoppered and weighed at room temperature as W4

W2  W1
True Specific Gravity 
(W4  W2 )  (W3  W2 )
True Specific Gravity  Apparant Specific Gravity
True Porosity 
True Specific Gravity

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 Test for Compressive Strength
• Specimen Preparation
– Cube size 5 cm, cylinder diameter 5 cm, height 5 cm
– Load bearing surfaces finished as nearly true, parallel and
perpendicular planes as possible
– Loaded face dimensions measured to nearest 0.2 mm
– Specimens kept immersed in water at 20 to 30°C for 24 hrs for
saturated condition testing
– Specimens oven dried at 105 ± 5°C for 24 hrs and cooled down
to room temp for dry testing
• Testing load gradually increased @ 140 kg/cm2 per
minute until break down
• Max load applied divided by area of bearing surface is
taken as the compressive strength of specimen
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Quarrying of Stones
 Quarrying and Dressing
• Quarrying: An art of extracting from the
rock beds stones of different varieties
used for general building work and broken
stones for roads and concrete work, etc
• Quarry: The place from stone is obtained
by digging or blasting etc

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 Quarrying Methods
• Digging or Excavating Method. Stones occurring
as detached nodules may be dug using manual
methods like crowbars etc
• Heating Method. Rock surface is heated for
several hours resulting into unequal expansion
and crushing of rock into small pieces
• Wedging Method. Layered rock is split at
cleavage or seam using steel wedges and pins
• Blasting Method. Hard and compact rock is
blasted out using explosives techniques
comprising boring, charging, tamping and firing

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Quarrying
Tools

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 Blasting Procedure
• Boring. Drilling of holes in rock using jumper, manual
drilling or machine drilling using pneumatic or
mechanical power
• Charging. Placing of required quantity of explosive
charge in the hole at desired location. Quantity depends
upon explosive strength, blasting method, number of
holes, type and mass of rock
– Gunpowder or Dynamite explosive (gms) = Square of length of
line of least resistance (m) / 0.008
• Tamping. Placing of priming charge, detonation cable
(cordite), and sealing off the escape of gases
• Firing. detonation mechanism (electrical or non-electrical
detonators) or fuse ignition

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 Blasting Precautions
• Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early
morning. Blasting should be made public with sufficient
time allowed to retire to safe distance
• 200 m radius danger zone should be marked with red flags
• First aid should be made available
• Proper record of number of charges prepared, fired and
exploded to account for misfires
• Explosive should be handled carefully
• Detonators and explosive should not be stored and kept
together
• Cartridges should be handled with rubber gloves
• Maximum of 10 bore holes should be exploded at a time
and that too successively and not simultaneously

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 Stone Dressing
• Pitched faced dressed – 2.5 cm edges dressed and
made square
• Hammer dressed, hammer faced, quarry faced or rustic
faced – dressed like a brick with 2.5 cm rough edges for
use in masonry
• Rock faced and chisel drafted – chisel draft of 2.5 cm
along edges
• Rough tooled – edges and corners made perfect square
and true
• Punched dressed – rough tooled improved up to 2 mm
• Fine tooled – fair smooth surface for ashler masonry

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 Dressed Stone Surfaces

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Stone Care
 Deterioration of Stones
• Rain.
– Physical Action. Disintegration, erosion, transportation
due to alternate wetting and drying
– Chemical Action. Decomposition, oxidation and
hydration of minerals due to acids formed with rain
water
• Frost. Pierces the pores, freezes, expands and
creates cracks
• Wind. Abrasion due to wind carried dust
• Temperature Changes. Expansion and
contraction affects on minerals of different
coefficients of linear expansion
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 Deterioration of Stones
• Vegetable growth. Roots of trees and
weeds in cracks and fissures
• Mutual decay
• Chemical Agents. Smokes, fumes, acids
and acid fumes from atmosphere
• Lichens. Destroy lime stones. Molluses
make series of parallel vertical holes

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 Avoiding Deterioration
• Initial selection – use compact, crystalline stones instead of porous
material
• Seasoning – Seasoned stones are less liable to deterioration due to
frost and acids
• Size – it does matter – bigger is more durable than smaller ones
• Natural bed – placing on natural bed provides greater strength and
is detrimental to rain and frost
• Surface finish – well dressed, smooth finished and polished is more
durable
• Workmanship – all joints filled leaving no cavities in masonry
• External rendering – pointing or plastering to stop rain penetration
• Proper maintenance – washing, removing dirt and dust
• Application of preservatives – eliminate cause of deterioration
• Cure is better than medicine

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 Natural Bed
of Stones

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 Preservation of Stones
• Stones should be kept dry with blow lamp and
applied coat of paraffin, linseed oil, light paint,
etc
• Stones should be washed with water and steam
to remove dirt and salt
• In industrial towns stones are preserved by
application of solution of baryta, Ba(OH)2 to form
insoluble barium sulphate
• Preservative treatment only slows down the
decay but does not stop it. All have harmful side
effects also

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 Selection of Stones
• Cost – quarrying and cutting, dressing,
transportation charges, etc
• Fashion & Ornamental value including
color, shade, etc specially after prolong
usage
• Durability (usually overlooked and
disregarded), resistance to fire and
weathering
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 Selection of Stones
• Heavy engineering works bridges, piers, abutments,
break waters, docks, light houses – granite (biotite,
hornblende, tourmaline)
• Buildings facing the sea – granite, fine grained
sandstone
• Buildings in industrial area – granite, compact sandstone
• Arches – fine grained sandstone
• Building face work – marble, close grained sandstone
• Fire resisting structure – compact sandstone
• Road metal and aggregate for concrete – granite, basalt,
quartzite
• Railway ballast – coarse grained sandstone, quartzite
• Electrical switch board – slate, marble
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 Artificial Stone
• Definition - Building material made with cement,
sand and natural aggregates of crushed stone
for use in place of natural stone
• Properties
– Made with white cement, sand and natural
aggregates of crushed stone
– Molded into most intricate forms
– Cast into any size
– Reinforced to desired higher strength
– Desired coloring may be achieved
– Desired finish may be achieved
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 Artificial Stone
• Concrete block. Cast in molds for steps,
window sills, masonry work, etc
• Ransom stone. Soda silicate plus cement
for decorative flooring
• Victoria stone. Granite pieces immersed in
soda silicate for two months
• Bituminous stone. Provide noise, wear and
dust resistant stone surfaces
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 Artificial Stone
• Imperial stone. Crushed granite plus cement,
molded, steam cured
• Artificial marble. Pre-cast or cast-in-situ.
Portland gypsum cement and sand. Cast blocks
treated with magnesium fluorite, washed, paper
wrapped, machine emery ground, polished and
finally rubbed with ball of wool moistened with
alum water
• Garlic stone. Iron slag and cement mixture
molded into flag stones, surface drains, etc

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 Any Questions ???

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