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Tolerance
• Tolerance is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error that is
to be expected in some value.
• Example
Electric circuit components such as resistors
have tolerances of perhaps 5%. One resistor
chosen at random from a batch having a
nominal value 1000W and tolerance 5% might
have an actual value anywhere between 950W
and 1050 W.
 Range or span

• The range or span of an instrument defines

the minimum and maximum values of a
quantity that the instrument is designed to
measure.
• Example: 0-20 V range of a multimeter
 Linearity

• It is highly desirable that the measurement

system has a linear relationship between input
and output means that the change in output is
proportional to the change in the value of the
measurand.
• Deviation from true linearity is called linearity
error
 sensitivity of measurement
• The
  sensitivity of measurement is a measure
of the change in instrument output that
occurs when the quantity being measured
changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is
the ratio:
• Sensitivity = (output) / (input)
Example: The following resistance values of a platinum
resistance thermometer were measured at a range of
temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of
the instrument in ohms/°C. Resistance (Ω) Temperature (°C)

307 200
314 230
321 260
328 290

Solution
If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight line
relationship between resistance change and temperature
change is obvious. For a change in temperature of 30°C, the
change in resistance is 7Ω. Hence the measurement
sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.233 Ω/°C.
 Threshold

• If the input to an instrument is gradually

increased from zero, the input will have
to reach a certain minimum level before
the change in the instrument output
reading is of a large enough magnitude
to be detectable. This minimum level of
input is known as the threshold of the
instrument.
• As an illustration, a car speedometer typically
has a threshold of about 15 km/h. This means
that, if the vehicle starts from rest and
accelerates, no output reading is observed on
the speedometer until the speed reaches 15
km/h.
 Resolution

• Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental

change of input parameter that can be sensed in
the output signal.
Example
• Using a car speedometer as an example again, this
has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h. This means
that when the needle is between the scale
markings, we cannot estimate speed more
accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h. This figure
of 5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the
instrument.
 Sensitivity to disturbance

• As variations occur in the ambient temperature

etc., certain static instrument characteristics
change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a
measure of the magnitude of this change. Such
environmental changes affect instruments in two
main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity
drift.
• Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative
term, bias. Zero drift or bias describes the effect
where the zero reading of an instrument is
modified by a change in ambient conditions.
 Cont…

• Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift)

defines the amount by which an instrument’s
sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient
conditions change.
 Hysteresis
• If the input measured quantity to the
instrument is steadily increased from a
negative value, the output reading varies
in the manner shown in curve (a). If the
input variable is then steadily decreased,
the output varies in the manner shown in
curve (b). The non-coincidence between
these loading and unloading curves is
known as hysteresis
 Dead Space
• Dead space is defined as the range of different
input values over which there is no
change in output value.
 Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

• Dynamic characteristics of instruments

manifest when quantities being
measured vary rapidly with time. The
dynamic behavior of an instrument is
determined by subjecting its primary
element to some known and
predetermined variation in measured
quantity. Three most common
variations are:
 Cont….

• Step Change: In which the primary element is

subjected to an instantaneous and finite
change in measured variable
• Linear Change: In which the primary element
is ”following” a measured variable, changing
linearly with time
• Sinusoidal Change: In which the primary
element follows a Measured variable, the
magnitude of which changes in accordance
with a sinusoidal function of constant
amplitude.
 Cont…

• Dynamic characteristics of instruments include speed of

response, lag, fidelity …
• Speed of Response: is the rapidity with which an
instrument responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
• Lag: is a retardation or delay in the response of an
instrument to changes in the measured quantity.
• Fidelity: is the degree to which an instrument indicates
the changes in measured variable without dynamic error.
• Dynamic Error: is the difference between the true value
of a quantity changing with time and the value indicated
by the instrument if no static error is assumed.
 Measurement Errors

• Error is difference between the

measured and the true value(as per
standard). No measurement can be
made without errors at all times
Thus some deviation from a standard
is inevitable.
 Types of errors
• SYSTEMATIC or CUMULATIVE ERROR: these
errors alter the instrument’s readings by a
fixed magnitude and with same sign from one
reading to another. Because the algebraic sign
is the same, they tend to accumulate and
hence are known as cumulative errors. They
are also commonly termed as instrument bias.
These types of errors are caused due to the
following factors:
 Cont…
• Instrument errors: Certain errors are inherent
in the instrument systems. These may be
caused due to poor design /construction of
the instrument. Errors in the divisions of
graduated scales, inequality of the balance
arms, irregular springs tension, etc., cause
such errors.
 Cont…
• Environmental errors: are caused due to
variation of conditions external to the
measuring device. Commonly occurring
changes in environmental conditions that may
affect the instrument characteristics are the
effects of changes in temperature, barometric
pressure, humidity, wind forces, magnetic or
electrostatic fields, etc.
 Cont…
• Loading errors: are caused by the act of measurement on
the physical system being tested. Common examples of this
type are:
• introduction of additional resistance in the circuit by the
measuring ammeter which may alter the circuit current by
significant amount
• obstruction type flow meter may partially block or disturb
the flow conditions and consequently the flow rate shown by
the meter may not be same as before the meter installation
• introduction of a thermometer alters the thermal capacity of
the system and thereby changes the original state of the
system which gives rise to loading error in the temperature
measurement
 Cont…
• ACCIDENTAL or RANDOM ERRORS: are caused
due to random variations in the parameter or
the system of measurement. Such errors vary
in magnitude and may be either positive or
negative on the basis of chance alone. Since
these errors are in either direction, they tend
to compensate one another. Therefore, these
errors are also called chance or compensating
type of errors.
 Cont…
• The following are some of the main contributing
factors to random error
• Inconsistencies associated with accurate
measurement of small quantities: random errors
become noticeable when the quantities being
measured become microscopic.
• Presence of certain system defects: system
defects such as large tolerances in mating parts
and the presence of friction contribute to errors
that are either positive or negative depending on
the direction of motion.
 Cont…
MISCELLANEOUS or GROSS ERRORS: are partly
systematic and partly random errors mainly caused
by the following
Personal /human errors
• These are caused due to the limitations in the
human senses. For example, one may sometimes
consistently read the observed value either high or
low and thus introduce systematic errors in the
results. While at another time one may record the
observed value slightly differently than the actual
reading and consequently introduce random error
in the data.
 Cont…
Errors due to faulty components / adjustments
• Sometimes there is a misalignment of moving
parts, electrical leakage, poor optics, etc. in the
measuring system.
Improper application of the instrument
• Errors of this type are caused due to the use of
instrument in conditions which do not conform to
the designed operating conditions. For example,
extreme vibrations, mechanical shock or pick-up
due to electrical noise could introduce so much
gross error as to mask the test information.
 Sources of errors
• Noise: any signal that does not convey useful information.
• Design limitations: certain inevitable factors such as friction & power
loss.
• Response time: is the time lag from the application of input signal until
output measurement.
• Deterioration of measuring system: physical and/or chemical
deterioration or other alterations in characteristics of measuring
system.
• Environmental effects: change in atmospheric temperature may alter
the elastic constant of a spring, the dimensions of a linkage, electrical
resistance etc. similarly other factors such as humidity, pressure etc.
also affect measurements.
• Errors in observation & Interpretation: the mistakes of operators in
observing, interpreting & recording data.
• Poor maintenance of the system: drifting instruments may go
unnoticed and cause errors.
Thank you!