Data Collection

Introduction

• Data collection - Exciting component – interaction &

collection of information based on study.

• Instruments/tool used to elicit the information.

• It may be an interview schedule, questionnaire, an

observation check list, any machinery etc.
 Introduction

• Tool – is a research instrument. It is a device used to

measure the concept of research in a research study.

• Method of data collection – Gathering data with the use of

specific tools that are being used in a given study.

• Eg: Questioning is the technique, questionnaire – tool of

data collection.
 Concept of Data collection

• Data - Distinct piece of information – collected, observed, or

created for the purpose of analysis to generate the results of
a study to reach at some conclusion/Information.

• Bases or raw material for analysis - Facts, figures and other

relevant materials, past and present experiences.
 Concept of Data collection

• Data collection – systematic process, the researcher collects

the information from variety of sources – to answer the
research question.

• Accurate data collection – Crucial to sustain the integrity and

reliability of the research.
Concept of Data collection

• Researcher to decide

‘Why’, ‘What’,

from ‘Whom’, ‘When’ and

‘Where’ to collect
Types of data

Primary data

Secondary data
 Primary Data

• Data collected directly from the subjects by the researcher

or trained data collector.

• Data collected are specifically for the purpose of research.

• E.G. Surveys, Interview, Observations bio-physiologic

measurement
 Primary Data
Advantages Disadvantages
• Tailored according to research needs
• Time consuming
• The researcher can determine exactly
• Rely on patient recall and
what data will be collected and can
communication abilities
identify the specific tools that will be
• Bias may occur due to various
used.
factors.
• Defined and consistent protocol
• Need to check reliability of raters.
• Completeness of data is ensured
 Secondary Data

• It involves of use of the data that were collected for

various purposes other than current research.

• Eg., Diaries, nurses notes, care plans, Patient medication

record, statistical abstracts, census reports neither
published or unpublished data.
 Secondary Data
Advantages Disadvantages
• It is easier and quicker. • Accuracy, completeness and reliability
depend upon original individual
• Absence of researcher’s biases.
collecting the data.
• Economical and time saving
• It may not be ideally suitable for
• Examine the trends over time answering current research question.
• Participant’s co-operation may not be • Missed data and inaccuracy are
necessary & it eliminates the biases common.
related to participant awareness. • Biases are commonly expected.
 Selecting a Data Collection Tool

• Tools of data collection depends on - Nature of

research approach, research questions, and the need
for precision.

• Researcher may use more than one tool.

 Selecting a data collection tool

EXAMPLE
• Assessment of K, A, and P of nursing personnel
regarding hepatitis.
• Knowledge questionnaire, attitude scale, check list –
to evaluate their practices .
 7. Any
6. Costly specific
training
5. Is the 8. Assess for
instrument acceptability
public domain of instrument

4. Check evidence Selecting a

of reliability and data collection
validity Tool

3. Match for the

constructs in the
instruments with
current study

2. Availability of 1. Clearly defined

already existing construct or
instruments concept
Data Collection Methods

• The research tools are devices used to collect data.

• It facilitate the observation and measurement of the

variable of interest.

• Data collection methods determine - Type of tool to be

used.
 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview

IV.
III.
Physiological
measures Observation
 I. Questionnaire Method

• Common method of data collection.

• Consists – set of ?s, designed according to aims and

objectives of the research.

• Well prepared ?naire – easy interpretation and Analysis

 I. Questionnaire Method

• Poorly developed ?naire – cost more time & effort,

prevent achievement of purpose of study.

• Answers collected by either – Self

Administered/Interview method
 Type of ?s

Open ended Closed ended

 Open Ended Questions

• It requires written responses from the subjects and allow

respondent to answer in their own words.

• Easy to construct

• Difficult to analyse.
 Open Ended Questions

• Commonly used in qualitative research.

• Time consuming

• They provide insightful and natural response

• Flexible and applicable to wide range of participants.

Open Ended Questions

• Certain DISADVANTAGES are

• Data with lot of irrelevant material
• Individual difference in articulation
• Interviewers variability in eliciting response
• Analysis – Tedious & Demanding
 Closed Ended Questions

• Uniformity of responses - It requiring only selecting the

response from given alternatives (pre-designated, developed by
researcher).
• Eg: What is your marital status? Single/Currently
Married/divorced/Separated/ widowed.
• Easy to code, analyse and compare
• Comparing responses across different groups
 Closed Ended Questions

• Difficult to construct

• Commonly used in quantitative studies.

• Time- saving, Fixed and artificial

• Relevant data, More objective.

• Disadvantage – sometimes forced to select inappropriate

option – not permitting exact shade of opinions.
Closed ended
type of ?s
include
 1. Dichotomous Questions

• To make choice between two response alternatives such as

Yes/No, Agree/Disagree, Male/ Female.

• Easy to administer and tabulate.

• Prone for large amount of error – prevent gaining

information.

• Fails to communicate intensity of feelings of respondents.

Closed ended
type of ?s
include
 2. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

• Widely used ?s – high degree of objectivity, easy to analysis.

• It is a type of question offer two or more responses

alternatives.

• It commonly contains 3 to 7 alternatives.

• A MCQ consists of two parts.

 2. Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)

• A first is stem, - Question or incomplete statement,

• The second part consists of several options (distractors and

correct response) from which to select a correct answer.
(Distractors also known as decays or foils)
 Forms and Types of MCQ

iii. The Multiple response

i. The Correct answer form ii. The Best answer form iv. The Negative form
form
 Forms and Types of MCQ

1. The correct answer form

• Three or more responses are given but only one of them is correct.

2. The best answer form

• There one or more responses are correct but one of them is the
best answer.

• The subjects are requested to select best one.

 Forms and Types of MCQ

3. The multiple response form

• Here two or more responses are correct and the subject is

request to identify the all correct responses.

4. The negative form

• The stem has a negative approach. In response one may be

correct response
 Principles and
Rules of
Constructing MCQ

5. Questions 1. Response items

-Mutually exclusive,
affirmative rather collectively
than negative exhaustive

4. According to the 2. Underlying

researcher’s rationale for
understanding ordering
ability. alternatives

3. Questions
(stem) -worded
clearly
 Principles and
Rules of
Constructing MCQ

10. Use impersonal wording of question is

sometimes useful minimizing 6. Avoid long
embarrassment sentences or
and encouraging phrases or
honesty. technical terms

9. Avoid 7. Avoid
leading double-barrelled
questions questions

8. Questions on
complex or specialized
issues can be worded
in such a way.
 Principles and
Rules of
Constructing MCQ

15. Include 11 Avoid using ‘all

enough information the above’, ‘none
in the stem to of the above’ as an
answer question. opinion.

14. Ensure answer 12. Do not keep the

items that every one
to one question
will answer or agree or
will not influence every one will not
other question answer

13. Responses
should be arranged
in logical sequence
 Principles and
Rules of
Constructing MCQ

20. Use “Best 16. Keep all options

grammatically
answer form MCQ”
consistent with the
when majority of stem to avoid clues to
the experts agree. the correct option

17 Keep all the options

19. It is need not
the same length or
necessary that all items
have two short
should have same
responses and two long
number of options.
responses.

18. Make all

options reasonable
and homogenous.
Closed ended
type of ?s
include
3. Filter Questions (Contingency Questions)

• ?s asked depend on the response from a previous ?

• Sometimes there could be a multiple filter ?s

• May confuse and discouraging from continuing

• E.g., What about hospital experience? (who never
hospitalized can not answer). It is also called as
skip questions.

• Yes / No, if yes – poor/good/very good

Closed ended
type of ?s
include
 4. Cafeteria Questions (MCQs)

• It is a special type of MCQ - Respondents to select best

response that most closely corresponds to their view.

• Usually it will be having all positive statements

 4. Cafeteria Questions (MCQs)

Example

• Which of the following statement best represents your point of view regarding
Breast Self Examination (BSE)?
• All the women should know the technique of BSE.

• All the women should do regular BSE.

• I am undecided about my view regarding BSE.

• BSE alone may not help in detecting the tumor

Closed ended
type of ?s
include
 5. Scaled Response Questions

• Closed ended ?s – Response choices are designed to capture an

intensity of feeling, attitude etc.
Types of Scaled Response Questions

iv. Semantic Differential

i. Checklists ii. Rating iii. Likert
Ranking
5. i. Checklists

• A Strategy to monitor specific skills or behaviours of the

subjects.

• Simplest form of all the tools.

• Consists of well prepared list of items pertinent to

object/task.
5. i. Checklists

• The presence or absence of each item may be indicated

by checking – yes/no/multipoint scale.

• May be used as an independent tool or as a part of

schedule/questionnaire.
Characteristics
of a checklist
 Construction of a checklist

• Easiest tool of construction

• It is two dimensional arrangement

• Things to be evaluated arranged in a vertical column of the

evaluation sheet

• The response listed in adjacent column – Yes/No.

Often/Seldom/Never
 Construction of a checklist

• When it is given to the subjects, if the characteristics

present in them, place a tick mark () in that column.

• After completion all tick marks () are counted.

• Scoring done – predefined norms/standards.

• Mostly used in self-administered ?naire

Check List – Nursing care of thrombolysed stroke
patients in the first 24 hours
 Advantages of Checklist

• Easy for construction, apply, understand and interpret.

• Can be completed even through mail.

• Checklists allow inter-individual comparisons.

• List of items provide guidelines to the subjects.

• Useful for self evaluation and evaluation by others.

 Advantages of Checklist

• It provides a simple method to record observation.

• It is useful in evaluating learning activities in class room and

clinical.

• Useful in obtaining large amount of data.

• Properly prepared, it allows the observer to contain the direct

attention.
 Advantages of Checklist

• Checklists have the objectivity to evaluate characteristics.

• Useful for evaluating - Processes that can be subdivided into

a series of actions.

• Decreases the chances of errors in observation.

 Disadvantages of Checklist

• Restriction to select given option – Forced Choice Response

• In many situations, summative scoring (overall score) and

interpretation of scores will be difficult.

• Does not indicate quality or degree of performance, so

usefulness of checklist is limited.

• It has a limited use in qualitative research studies

 Four Common Styles Of Constructing Check Lists (Kempfer Styles)

1. In one of the arrangements, all items found in a situation

are to be checked.
For example, observer may be asked to check ( ) in the
blank beside each activity undertaken in the unit.
1.Washing hands ()
2.Wearing mask ( )
3.Following aseptic precautions. ()
4.Following barrier technique ( )
 Four Common Styles Of Constructing Check Lists (Kempfer Styles)

2. In the second form, the observer is asked to check with a

yes or no or asked to encircle or underline the response
to the given item.

For example,

Does unit have disinfection solution in the hand washing area?

Yes / No
 Four Common Styles Of Constructing Check Lists (Kempfer Styles)

3. This is the form which all the items are positive

statements with checks (ü) to be marked in a column on the
right,

For example,

The school functions as a community centre. ( )

 Four Common Styles Of Constructing Check Lists (Kempfer Styles)

4. In the fourth form, the items are presented in sentences

and the appropriate response out of the supplied
responses is checked, underlined or encircled,

For example: The Student Nurses Association organizes

various student activities. - Weekly, fortnightly, monthly,
irregularly.
 Observation Using Checklists

• Observe one respondent at one time.

• Clearly specify the characteristics of behaviour to be observed.

• Use only carefully prepared checklist to avoid more complex

traits.

• The observer should be trained - how to observe?, what to

observe?, and how to record the observed behaviour?.
 Types of Scaled Response Questions

i. Checklists ii. RATING iii. Likert

iv. Semantic Differential
Ranking
 5. ii. Rating Scale

• Data collection instrument – Allows the respondents to place

their responses – like feelings, attitudes, performance tasks,
skill levels, procedures, processes, qualities, quantities –
Ranged the potential responses.

• Number of response options – 3 to 7 options.

 5.ii. Rating Scale

• RS consist of
• First column - Performance statement,
• Next column - Range of accomplishment – in descriptive
words/ with or without numbers ( poor to excellent, never
to always, very good to very poor, strongly disagree to
strongly agree.
Characteristics of Rating Scales
Rating scales
should
6. Be short
enough to be
practical

5. Clear and 1. Clearly

distinguishable defined, detailed
terms statements

4. Range of numbers 2. Arranged in

should always
increase or decrease logical /flow
for all items sequentially
3. Clear
wording with
number
Advantages of Rating Scales

• Simple

• Easy to understand, administer and score

• Provide significant amount of data

• Allow people to view very clear and concise for making

decisions
Rating Scale

• Rating scales are similar to checklists EXCEPT

that they indicate the degree of accomplishment
rather than just “yes” or “No”
 5.ii. Rating Scales

A. Non-comparative
B. Comparative R S
RS
 I. Non - Comparative & II. Comparative
Rating Scale

• Researcher makes the • Researcher evaluates the

judgement on the basis of position in terms of
the individual alone. relationship to other
individuals or groups
characteristics are known.
 5.ii. Rating Scales

A. Non -com para tive

RS

B. Comparative R S
i. Cont inuous/ Gr aphic R S ii. Itemised/Numer ical R S
 a. Continuous/ Graphic R S

• Respondent rate the object by placing a check mark at the

appropriate position on a horizontal continuum that runs
from one extreme to other.

• Line may vary from 1 to 5 or from 1 to 7

• Smaller number is the lowest and higher number as the most

 a. Continuous/ Graphic R S

Example

How do you rate your comfort level at present?

Very Uncomfortable 1----2----3----4----5----6----7 Very comfortable
a. Continuous/ Graphic R S

Advantages Disadvantages
• Discern fine • Tends to force the respondents
distinctions toward the middle of the scale

• Not reliable as itemized rating

scales
 b. Itemised / Numerical Rating Scale

• Form of multiple category questions.

• Respondents provided with a scale – number of brief

description associated with each category

• Categories are ordered in scale position, respondents

should select specified category .
b. Itemised / Numerical Rating Scale

• Simplest types of rating scales.

• The rater simply marks a number that indicates the extent

to which a characteristic or trait is present.

• The trait is presented as a statement and values from 1 to

5 are assigned to each trait that is rated.
b. Itemised / Numerical Rating Scale

• Typically a common key is used throughout, the key

providing a verbal description.
• Example: 1 2 3 4 5

• 5-very good,4-good,3-Fair,2-Poor, 1-very poor.

 b. Itemised / Numerical Rating Scale -
Example
Statements Very Good Fair (3) Poor Very
Good (4) (2) Poor (1)
(5)

1. Indicate the degree to which

the staff nurse practices universal
precautions in General Medical
Ward?
2.To what extent, does the
General Medical Ward staff nurse
participate in clinical conference?
 5.ii. Rating Scales

A. N on-compar at ive
RS

B. Comparative
ii. Itemised/Numerical R S R S
i. Continuous/ Graphic R S

a. Likert b. Semantic Di ffer ential c. G ut tman Sc ale

Likert Scale

• Commonly used self report scale

• Primarily used to measure the attitudes of the subjects

• Consist of series of statements, each has possible

responses – Strongly Agree, Agree, Uncertain, Disagree,
Strongly Disagree.
Likert Scale

• The number of options may vary from 5 to 7

• Most of the time it is odd number scale

• Even numbered scale is called Forced-Choice Scale

• In the odd numbered choices, the subject may respond to

middle choice – appear to be neutral neither high nor low
ratings.
 EG. Likert Scale

Evaluating the acceptability of a nursing care protocol among nurses

Instructions
• Kindly rate the following items
• Please don't miss any item
Sr. Response Always (5) Most of the Sometimes Rarely (2) Never (1)
No Time (4) (3)
Items
1. Do you think the protocol is helpful in
planning care of stroke patients?

2. Do you think really it is beneficial?

3. Do you think it helps in preventing errors in
work?

4. Do you think it helps to systematize nursing

care.
 Advantages of Likert Scale

• Quick, economical, easy to construct, administer and score.

• Easily measure person’s attitude towards concepts, activities
and so forth.
• High versatility, can sent through mail, over the internet, or
given personally.
• Checks the degree of agreement about the concepts rather
than yes/no.
 Disadvantages of Likert Scale

• Results may not be accurate – where individuals presents

falls impression.

• Intervals b/w the points on the scale do not present equal

changes.(strongly agree and agree – may be slight for one
and great for another)

• Internal consistency of the scale may be difficult to achieve.

 5.ii. Rating Scales

A. Non -com para tive

RS

B. Comparative
ii. Itemised/Numerical R S R S
i. Cont inuous/ Gr aphic R S

a. L ik ert b. Semant ic Dif fer ential c. Gut tm an Scale

Sematic Differential Scale

• Used to elicit attitudes and belief of the respondents.

• Lists the bipolar adjectives with 5 to 7 point scale.

• Between the points describe a setting, object, profession

or any other variable of interest.
Sematic Differential Scale

• Respondent select one point that describes his/her view

of concept.

• Values of the scale are summed – scoring done

Sematic Differential Scale
 Uses of Semantic Differential Scale

1.Patient Satisfaction Survey 4.Marketing Survey

2.Customer Satisfaction Survey 5.Operational Research

3.Employee Survey 6.Personality Measurements

7.Clinical psychology
Semantic Differential Scale - Advantages

1.Easy to construct

2.Highly flexible.

3.Useful in evaluating several concepts - person, place,

situation, abstract idea, controversial issue etc
Semantic Differential Scale - Disadvantages

1.Difficult to select relevant concepts appropriate

for a given study.

2.Time consuming to find bipolar adjectives.

 Guttman Scale or Cumulative scaling

• First described by Louise Guttman, 1944.

• It provides for a progression of attitudes from week to

strong.

• Respondent – choose some point along the continuum of

provided responses.
 Guttman Scale or cumulative scaling

• Scale gradually increases the specificity

• Agreeing one question in the list will also agree all the ?s

• Determine how extreme the view is – increasing the

extreme of positions.

• Not commonly used in nursing research

 Development of a Questionnaire

• Questionnaire – set of ?s, most commonly used tools of data

collection.

• Contains ?s, respondent - answer in writing.

• Measurement instrument – K, A, believes, ideas, opinions,

behaviour, feelings, perception, attributes.
 1. Is using ?naire optimal method?

2. What specific
4.characteristics
Any
5.social
Use
3.6.Literacy
the
Or
& cultural
developing
same
of level
population
existing
issues
ofnew
population?
or
to
in
?naire
modifying
be
theconsidered?
researcher interested in?

Important ?s by researcher – before deciding to

use a ?naire
Steps for using
existing ?naire
 New ?naire
development

3. Proper
development
of ?naire

2. Well constructed 1. Gives

questionnaire –
Easy interpretation enough time to
and Analysis develop ?naire
Steps involved in development of ?naire
target
informationmethod
collection is
content
required
& of the ?s
reach respondent
respondents

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validity and
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test the ?naire
and format
reliability issues

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 Cover letter for the ?naire

• Very important – especially for mailed ?naire

• Will inform the respondents regarding the study

Following items to be included

• Name of the researcher

• Address and Contact number of the researcher

• Title, purpose and objectives of the study

 Cover letter for the ?naire

Following items to be included

• Approximate time required to fill up the ?naire

• Statement of confidentiality

• Deadline for the return of ?naire

• Any additional information – researcher considers important

• Signature of the researcher

 Pretesting of the ?naire

• Well designed ?naire – meet the objectives of the research,

able to obtain complete and accurate information.

• Pre and Pilot testing – not only important, but it is

mandatory.

• Conducted – to correct any problem/deficiency – before

administration to the study subjects.
 Pretesting of the ?naire

• It help to determine – Strength and Weakness (correct

understanding of the ?naire), wording of items, adequacy of
responses, any regional difference.

• Confirmation of Filtering ?s,

• Two types – Participating pretest, Undeclared Pretest

 Participating Pretest Undeclared Pretest

• Informs the participant • Doesn’t inform the

• After filling – researcher conducts respondent
interview with respondents • Respondent asked to fill
• They are asked to explain – views up the ?naire – just as
regarding ?naire, wording, order, conducting data
difficulty level, any other collection.
relevant information • Allows researcher to
• Helps - to determine whether check the choice of
the ?naire is understandable analysis.
Methods of Administration of a Questionnaire
Tool
1. Researcher Administered

2. Self Administered
 Advantages of Questionnaire

1. Questionnaires are applicable to wider and large number of

samples.

2. Anonymity will be maintained.

3. No field staff required to supervise the data collection

procedure.

4. Easy and economical.

 Advantages of Questionnaire

5. It is free from interviewer related biases.

6. Best method for collecting information regarding sensitive and

controversial issues

7. The participants will response the items naturally and exhibits

candour behaviour.

8. Large amount of information from large number of people.

 Advantages of Questionnaire

9. Quick and easy quantification – use software package.

10. More objectivity.

11. Collect data regarding sensitive issues – sexual behaviour,

drug usage.
 Disadvantages of Questionnaire

1. This method is not applicable to all individuals especially illiterates,

visually challenged, etc.,

2. It has poor sample control. It may be filled by some person other than
the respondent.

3. Response rate is low, Follow up reminder required to achieve higher

response rate.

4. Respondent may not follow the order of questions.

 Disadvantages of Questionnaire

5. High chances for missing information.

6. Probing and clarification of items are not possible.

7. Risk of contamination among the respondents is quiet high

when mailed questionnaire is not adopted.

8. Response related biases are quiet high.

 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview
IV.
III.
Physiological
measures Observation
 2. Interview Method

• Major techniques in gathering information

• Two way verbal conversation b/w 2 or more people by the

researcher

• Sometimes – trained assistant help in data collection

 Methods of Conducting Interview

Face – to –
●

Face Interview
1

Telephonic
●
 1. Face – to – Face Interview

• Common data collection method

• Individual is interviewed – unable to provide false

information during screening ?s like gender, age, race, etc.

• Researcher has control over the interview and keep the

interviewee focused and on track to completion
 1. Face – to – Face Interview

• Free from technological distractions

• Interviewees emotion and behaviours can be captured

• Quality of data depend on ability of the interviewer

 2. Telephonic Interview

• When it is not possible to contact the respondent directly –

telephone interview can be conducted.

• Interviewer should have – pleasing telephonic voice

• Practice using the data collection instrument a number of times

• Flexible and cost effective than face – to – face interview

• Reply can be recorded without embarrassment to the respondents

 2. Telephonic Interview

• Disadvantages – Restricted to the respondents only with

telephone, not suitable for extensive survey (comprehensive
answers required).

• Well preparation required – Interviewer side

• Should not argue, and compel the respondent shouldn't pretend

too high – in education, knowledge and social status.
 3. Online Interview

• Computer mediated communication tools – instant messages,

email, video chat technology (skype)

• Simultaneous exchange of information

• Wait for each others reply

• Can be Structured/Unstructured

• Quite costly, computer literacy is required.

Types of Interview

1. Structured Interview

2. Semi - Structured Interview

3. Unstructured Interview

5. Focused Group
Discussion
4. In-depth Interview
 1. Structured Interview

• Interviewer – prepares list of ?s to be asked

• ?s asked – as per list/order only

• Responses – pre-coded, pre-decided, options to be chosen

• Done in face-to-face or via telephone – using standard set of ?s

• Nature of ? Route is fixed

 2. Semi - Structured Interview

• ?s are both structured and open-ended – prepared in the form

of an interview guide.
• Level of depth of understanding of interviewer – makes the
interview.
• Nature of ?ning route is flexible.
• Participant probed - detailed answer, give more details, add
additional perspectives.
 3. Unstructured Interview

• More like a discussion, takes more time than structured

interview.
• Researcher has general framework of ?s
• Researcher uses respondents answer to ask additional ?s
• More ?s added during conversation
• Done in face to face format
• Respondents encouraged to keep talk/subject of interest
• Record the conversation with prior permission
 4. In-Depth Interview (IDI)

• Common method of data collection – in qualitative studies.

• Used
• To explore the respondent’s own perceptions and opinions
in detail.
• In topics where very little is known and important to gain
an in-depth understanding.
• Useful in exploring sensitive topics.
 4. In-Depth Interview (IDI)

• Interviewer – Expert, Interviewee – Student

• One or more visits – to fill gaps (information gathering)
• Neutral ?s are asked.
• Attentive Listening – to the respondent answers, lead the ?s
with their answers.
• Interviewer – needs communication skills, ability to bond
 1. Greet participant in friendly
manner

3. 5.
Brief
6. Conduct
EndSteps
– give
interview
–2.
4.informed
opportunity
Establish
Turn on– consent,
as
tape
Good
per
to recorder
ask
Rapport
therecording
?sinterview
by participant
interview
guide

Conducting an IDI - Steps

7. Turn off the

recorder and
thank the
Participant
 After the Interview

• Check the tape recordings for completeness – if not expand hand

notes immediately.

• Make sure all the materials are labelled, and give number to the
interview.

• Assemble all materials and double check

• Transcribe notes as soon as possible – within 24 hours

 5. Focused Group Discussion (FGD)

• Another most common method of data collection –

Qualitative studies.

• Carefully planned discussion – to obtain perceptions

regarding a defined area of interest.

• Useful for issues – group share the same experience.

• Eg – problems faced by nurses while working in the ward.

Advantages of Interview Method

• It can be used – even respondent with less education

• Valid & Complete information could be collected

• If any difficulty in understanding – data collector can

facilitate

• Face-to-face contact with respondents

 Advantages of Interview Method

• Opportunity to explore topics in depth

• Allows researcher to Experience – Affective and Cognitive

aspects of respondents

• Allows flexible in administering interview

• Unclear points can be clarified by interviewee

Disadvantages on Interview Method

• Expensive, Time consuming

• Likely to get more negative responses on sensitive issues

• Quality of data – depend on data collector

• Need well-qualified, highly trained interviewers

Disadvantages on Interview Method

• Interviewee may distort information

• Volume of information may be large

• Some times difficult to contact respondents

• Inaccurate in terms of getting the numerical data

 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview
IV.
III.
Physiological
measures Observation
 Observation Method

• Investigator collects data by directly observing the study

subjects.

• When the researcher concerned with attributes – observation is

used.

• Observation permits – Researcher to watch and note actions and

reactions.
 Observation Method

• Used in both qualitative and quantitative studies

• Researcher – Records what happens and how frequently it

happens – Nature & frequency of events or activities of interest.

• Eg: How frequently nursing students wash their hands while

caring patients.
Types of Observation

1. Structured & 2. Participatory & 3. Controlled and

Unstructured Nonparticipatory Uncontrolled
 Types of Observation
Structured Unstructured

• Structured observation – • Involves spontaneous observation

and recording of observation.
defined what to observe,
• Observations – without
method of recording,
preplanning & preconceived ideas
coding. • Freedom of observation
• Involves use of instrument • Require high degree of
-Check List or Rating Scale. concentration & attention
 Types of Observation
Participatory NonParticpatory

• Respondent aware – overt • Respondent unaware – covert

observation observation

• Respondent become • Researcher becomes the part of

conscious – Hawthorne the process
effect
 Types of Observation
Controlled Uncontrolled

• Observation takes place in • Observation takes place in

definite prearranged plans natural condition

• Generally done in labs under • Done to get spontaneous

control picture of life and persons

• Eg: Experimental procedure

 1. 2. Decide
Determine the type
the of
behaviour to observatio
be observed n

Important
consideratio
ns while
using
Observation
Method

4. Train
the
observer
s
 Advantages of Observation Method

• Information obtained – reliable & accurate

• No bias

• Provides direct information about behaviour of

individuals/groups

• Evaluators enter into and understand circumstances

• Good opportunity for identifying unanticipated outcomes

 Disadvantages of Observation Method

• Difficult, Expensive, Time consuming

• Hawthorne effect

• Only to get present behaviour of the subject

• May not be practical in many situations

• May suffer from inadequate duration of observation

 Disadvantages of Observation Method

• Need well qualified and trained observers

• Need content experts

• Selective perception of observers may distort data

• Quality of data depend on the data collector/observer

• Respondents opinion cannot be recorded

 Observation done by

• Checklist

• Rating scale

• Likert scale

• Semantic Differential Scale

• Guttman Scale

• Visual Analogue Scale

 Visual Analogue Scale
• VAS – measurement instrument – tries to measure a
characteristic or attitude that is believed to range across a
continuum of values and cannot easily be directly measured.

• Self report scale, consists of a straight line, 100mm in length

– variable being measured at each end on line.

• Straight line may be horizontal or vertical

 Visual Analogue Scale
• Respondent marks on line of point – represent their current
perception of their current state.

• Useful research tool to measure subjective experiences –

such as pain, anxiety, fatigue
 Advantages of Visual Analogue Scale
• Easy to use & Understand by the respondents

• Has a better responsiveness

• More close assessments of respondents what actually they

experience
 Disadvantages of Visual Analogue Scale
• Some users – not able to understand

• Requires significant work, time & commitment for

instruction and administration

• Not valid for young children

• May be less specific than other measures

 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview
IV.
III.
PHYSIOLOGIC
AL MEASURES Observation
 Bio-physiological Measures

• Collecting the physical data from the patients

• The measures commonly accessible to nurses include body temp,

BP, pulse oximetry, blood gases, biochemical values, etc.

• These measures generally more objective and accurate because of

less bias.

• Instruments – proper functioning, calibrated.

 Classification of Bio-physiological Measures
In Vitro In Vivo
• Means glass
• Means a living person
• Measurement that is done on a
• Measurements which are directly
sample taken from a
taken on the participants and the
participant but analysed after
value obtained at the time of
it has been removed from the
measurements
participants
• These are usually physiological
• These test measures – chemical
characteristics – BP, Temp, pulse,
components like hormone
respiration, pulse oximetry etc.
assays or blood components
 Advantages of
Bio physiological
Measures
 Disadvantages of
Bio physiological
Measures

4. Hawthorne Effect
5. Potential harm to
participant – invasive
physiological
measurements

3. Instruments may
be affected by the 1. Expensive
changes in Instruments
environment

2. Training to
use the
instrument
 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview
IV.
III.
PHYSIOLOGIC
AL MEASURES Observation
 Projective Technique

• Subjects project a meaning into materials that is actually ambiguous

or meaningless.

• Participants asked o describe the stimulus or to tell what the stimulus

appears to represent.

• The response reflect the internal feelings of the subjects that are
projected into external stimuli

• Ink blot test

 Advantages - Projective Technique

• Helps the researcher to see what the person is struggling

with internally.
 Disadvantages – Projective Technique

• Require special training – administration & interpretation

• Tests are not standardised

• Lack of objectivity of the tests

• Issue related to their reliability and validity

• Expensive
 Vignettes

• It is a method that can elicit perceptions, opinions, beliefs

and attitudes from responses or comments to stories
depicting scenarios and situations.
• They can be hypothetical or factual.
• They can be written or oral.
• Provides face-to-face contact with the respondents and
explore the topics in-depth.
4/21/2015
166
 Vignettes

Advantages Disadvantages

• Able to collect
information • Problems in
simultaneously from establishing reliability,
large numbers of
subjects. validity.
• In depth information can
be explored
 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview
IV.
III.
PHYSIOLOGIC
AL MEASURES Observation
 Q Sort

• Also called Q methodology

• Systematic study of participants viewpoints regarding some
issues.
• Set of statements (Q sorts) – given to participants
• Participants – arrange the Q sorts according to their view
• Contain – words, pictures
• Analysis done using factor analysis
 METHODS OF
DATA
COLLECTION
VII. Record
Analysis

I.
VI. Q Sort Questionnaire

V. Projective II.
Technique Interview
IV.
III.
PHYSIOLOGIC
AL MEASURES Observation
 Record Analysis

• Records are valuable source of data in nursing research

• Ever present source of material

• Compilation of figures and writings that individual collected earlier

• Use of existing information for the research purpose

• It is secondary data
 Pilot Study

• Rehearsal before the actual occasion – any flaws rectified

well in time.

• Mini versions of a full scale study as well as specific pre-

testing of research instrument

• Also called feasibility of study

Pilot Study

• Doesn’t guarantee success in the main study but increase

the likelihood of success

• Small sample size 10-20 units

• Helps in identifying the problems and rectify them in time

 Objectives of
Pilot Study

2. To reveal 1. To improve the

deficiencies in the actual studies
design of a proposed quality and
experiment efficiency
 Helps in Testing the ?nnaire/
tool

Requirement
Assess Helpsof
Availability of resources
– Practicability
Check –in
protocol
assessing
subjects can
of using be assessed
estimated.
effectiveness
can
feasibility
proposed
be methods

Advantages of Pilot Study

Helps in
assessing
proposed data
analysis
Limitation in conducting pilot study

Conducted on
smaller scale – Not appropriate
result vary from for case studies
main study

Carried out on Provide only

Data Collection Procedure

• Involves preparing, collection and management of data

• It is equal to carry out a nursing procedure on the patients
 Data collection process in research
bility of
ring
ent/mate
ion of
naire and
form
archer/s

4.
P
er
m
s
i
o
n
r
o
m
h
e
a
ut
h
or
ti
es
 Data collection process in research
ging
gging
ration of
/setting
ata
ants

8.
Pr
e
p
ar
at
o
n
of
d
at
a
m
a
n
a

e
m
e
nt
VALIDITY, RELIABILITY
 INTRODUCTION

Data collection done by research instruments or tools

Key indicators of quality instruments are

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
 INTRODUCTION

Validity and Reliability ensures

Instrument being used will measure what it suppose to
measure and
Do this in a consistent manner.
 INTRODUCTION

 All Researchers – Expert in examining and establishing

Validity and Reliability of instruments.

 Various methods are used to establish Validity and

Reliability
 INTRODUCTION

Validity - Does it measure what it is supposed to

measure?

Reliability - How representative is the measurement?

 Characteristics of Data Collection Tools/Instruments (should be )

3. USER
1. VALID 2. RELIABLE
FRIENDLY
 ESTABLISHING VALIDITY OF A TOOL

 The term validity refers to whether or not a test

measures (tool/Instrument) what it intends to measure.

 i.e, Tool/Instrument – Performs as it designed to perform.

The measurement does not always have to be similar.

 ESTABLISHING VALIDITY OF A TOOL

 Eg: Clinical thermometer is valid to measure body

temperature. But Sphygmomanometer is not valid to
measure body temperature.
 ESTABLISHING VALIDITY OF A TOOL

 Eg: Researcher wants to measure the empathy level of

nursing students using a rating scale.
 Validity if this tool refers to the degree to which it
accurately reflects or assesses the empathy level of students
 ESTABLISHING VALIDITY OF A TOOL

Tool must be valid before collecting data.

The measurement does not always have to be similar.

APPROACHES FOR ESTABLISHING VALIDITY OF A TOOL

4.
2.
Formativ
Construct
e
Validity
Validity.
 VALIDITY

 Content”: related to objectives and their sampling.

 “Face”: related to the test overall appearance.
 “Construct”: referring to the theory underlying the target.
 “Criterion”: related to concrete criteria in the real world. It can be
concurrent or predictive.
 “Concurrent”: correlating high with another measure already
validated.
 “Predictive”: Capable of anticipating some later measure.
 1. CONTENT VALIDITY

 Content Validity of a tool is the extent to which the tool

represents the phenomenon under study.

 i.e, appropriateness of the content on instrument.

 In other words – do the measures (ie., ?S) accurately assess

what the researcher want to know?
 1. CONTENT VALIDITY

The test should evaluate only the content related to

representative, relevant, and comprehensible.

Eg: if a researcher wants to assess the knowledge of nurses

regarding hepatitis B, - ?naire should cover each and every
aspect of Hepatitis B.
 1. CONTENT VALIDITY

 ?naire – must be evaluated by group of experts in respective

field.

 They examine the tool – gives their opinion.

 No statistical test to determine Content Validity, it depends

on the judgement of experts in the field.
 1.A. FACE VALIDITY

 Subtype of content validity

 In this the validity is determined by inspecting the items to

ascertain whether “on the face of it” - whether it appears
to be a good

 It is related to test overall appearance

 1.A. FACE VALIDITY

 Eg: Researcher administers a test to assess the knowledge

of nursing students regarding tracheostomy care.
 1.A. FACE VALIDITY

 After complete test, students are asked to do a follow-up ?

naire on
 What they think the purpose of the test is,
 What construct they believe is being measured,
 Whether the ?naire was adequate to measure their knowledge
regarding tracheostomy care .
 1.A. FACE VALIDITY

 Face validity rarely used due to lack of true confirmability.

 However it is better than establishing no validity at all.

 2. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

It implies using the construct correctly (concepts, ideas,

notions).

Construct validity seeks agreement between a

theoretical concept and a specific measuring device or
procedure.
 2. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Basic approach to establish construct validity is Group

technique – Instrument administered to several groups
known to differ on certain construct.

The result statistically demonstrate significant difference –

then the instrument said to have degree of construct validity
 2. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY

Hepatitis B ?naire administered to different level of

Nursing students – Diploma, Graduate and PG

Different level of students should show different

knowledge score - which will establish the construct
validity of the tool.
 3. CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY

 Also referred to as instrumental validity.

 It is determined by comparing results of the tool (under test

or developed presently) with results of some universally
accepted tool (which measures the same concepts).

 Includes Predictive and Concurrent validity

 3. CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY

 Predictive validity – Ability of the instrument to predict an

individuals behaviour in the future.

 Eg: Study to assess the level of empathy of a candidate who

wants to join nursing profession

 Here, the study attempts to correlate empathy with

suitability
 3. CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY

 Concurrent validity – How well an instrument correlates

with another instrument that is known as to be valid.

 Eg: Researcher wats to assess IQ level of an individual – uses

2 tools for the purpose – both the tool should be similar in
assessing IQ level.
 4. FORMATIVE VALIDITY

 Applied to outcome assessment

 It is used to assess how well a tool is able to provide

information to (help) improve the programme under study.
 4. FORMATIVE VALIDITY

 Eg. The above said tool – assessment of knowledge regarding

hepatitis B.

 If the tool provide information that nurses are lacking

knowledge in certain area (eg – prevention of infection) – then
the tool is providing meaningful information – it can be used
to improve the course or programme requirements.
 1. Clear 2. Match
defining – the tool to
study the goals
goals and and
objectives objectives

Measures
to enhance
the validity
of the tools

4. Colleagues
look over the
tool – for
difficult
wording or
other
difficulties
 ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

 Reliability is known as precision, reproducibility,

consistency and repeatability.

 It is the ability of the tool to give similar measurements,

under the similar conditions on the same subject.
 ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

 A reliable instrument is one that gives consistent results

(measurements or reading) when it is applied more than once
to same subject under similar conditions.
 i.e, Repeated measurements on the same individual under
the similar condition produce similar findings
 ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

 Reliability – usually expressed as a number, called coefficient.

 Reliability Coefficient ranges between -1.00 to +1.00

 Higher coefficient indicates higher levels reliability.

 Reliability of the tool is not permanent, Means even the

previously standardised tool also must be assessed again.
 ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

 Several types of Reliability determined by various

correlations.

 There are three key aspects.

 ESTIMATING RELIABILITY

1. Stability
 1. STABILITY

 It is a measure of the instrument/tool to obtain similar results

by administering the same test twice over a period of time to
a group of individuals.

 The procedure used is test-retest reliability

 1. STABILITY

 Scores from time 1 and time 2 correlated statistically in

order to evaluate the test for stability over time.

 If the results in both the occasions are same, the Correlation

Coefficient will be about 0.90, and tool will be said to have
test-retest reliability.
 1. STABILITY

 Time lag between 2 test should be about 1 week.

 If it too short – respondent may remember the responses.

 If it too long – some may do better – own learning,

maturation.
 1. STABILITY

 Test-retest Reliability – quiet east to establish.

 Can be used in self-report, observational and physiological

measures.
 2. INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

 Internal consistency reliability or scale homogeneity is the

extent to which all items of an instrument measure the
same variable.

 It is appropriate – when the instrument is examining one

concept or construct at a time.
 2. INTERNAL CONSISTENCY

 Most widely used approach in reliability of psychological

instruments.

 This test involves summing up of the items are evaluated

for internal consistency
2. INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
Odd –Even reliability

2. Parallel
1. Split-Half
forms of
Technique
reliability
 3. EQUIVALENCE

 Primarily used in observational measures.

 Most common method – Inter-rater/Inter observer reliability

 It is a measure of reliability used to assess the degree to which

different observers agree in their assessment decisions