IB CHEMISTRY

Topic 6
Chemical Kinetics
GRAPHICAL TECHNIQUES
11.2
ESSENTIAL IDEA AND NATURE OF
SCIENCE
Essential Idea Nature of Science

 Graphs are a visual  The idea of correlation

representation of
 can be tested in
trends in data.
experiments whose results
can be displayed
graphically.
UNDERSTANDINGS, APPLICATIONS AND
SKILLS
Understandings
 Graphical techniques are an effective
means of communicating the effect of an
independent variable on a dependent
variable, and can lead to determination of
physical quantities.
 Sketched graphs have labelled but
unscaled axes, and are used to show
qualitative trends, such as variables that
are proportional or inversely
proportional.
Applications and Skills
 Drawing graphs of experimental results including
the correct choice of axes and scale.
 Interpretation of graphs in terms of the
relationships of dependent and independent
variables.
 Production and interpretation of best-fit lines or
curves through data points, including an
assessment of when it can and cannot be
considered as a linear function.

 Drawn graphs have labelled and scaled

 Calculation of quantities from graphs by
measuring slope (gradient) and intercept,
axes, and are used in quantitative
including appropriate units.
measurements.
GRAPHS
 Graphs are often the best method of presenting and
analysing data.

 Itshows the relationship between the independent

variable which is plotted on the horizontal axis (x-
axis) and the dependant variable which is plotted
on the vertical axis (y-axis).

 Graphs give an indication of the reliability of the

measurements.
 PLOTTING GRAPHS – TIPS!
 When you draw a graph you should:

 Give the graph a title

 Label the axis with both quantities and units (without scales and
labels the graphs are sketched graphs – they can be used to show
qualitative trends – experimental data needs scales).
 Use the available space as effectively as possible (at least half)
 Use sensible linear scales – there should be no uneven jumps.
 Plot all the points correctly
 A line of best fit should be drawn smoothly and clearly. It does not
have to go through all the points but should show the overall trend.
 Identify any points which do not agree with the general trend.
 Think carefully about the inclusion of the origin. The point (0, 0) can
be the most accurate data point or it can be irrelevant.
THE ‘BEST-FIT’ STRAIGHT LINE
 In most cases the best way to plot the data is to produce a
straight line. The best-fit line passes near to as many points
as possible.

 The best-fit line does not necessarily pass through any of

the points plotted. Two properties of a straight line are
particularly useful: the gradient and the intercept.
 EXTRAPOLATION OF THE LINE
 Sometimes it is required to extended the line beyond the range of
measurements. This is known as extrapolation.

 e.g. absolute zero can be worked out from extrapolating the

volume/temperature graph for an ideal gas.

 There is another process called interpolation where the trend line is

applied between two points.
FINDING THE GRADIENT AND THE
INTERCEPT
 The equation for a straight line is y = mx + c.

 x is the independent variable.

 y is the dependant variable.

 m is the gradient.

 c is the intercept on the vertical axis.

 The gradient of a straight line (m) is the increase in the

dependent variable divided by the increase in the
independent variable
 CALCULATING THE GRADIENT

 The
  gradient can be expressed as :

 The triangle used to calculate the gradient should be as large as

possible. The gradient has units which are the units of the
vertical axis divided by the horizontal axis
 GRADIENT ON CURVES
 The gradient of a curve can be found by taking the
tangent to the curve at any point and measuring the
gradient for that tangent.
 ERRORS AND GRAPHS
 Systematic and random
uncertainties can be
recognised from graphs.

 A graph combines the

results of many
measurements and so
minimises the effects of
random uncertainties in
the measurements.
OUTLIERS IN A GRAPH
 The presence of an outlier can suggest that some of
the data is unreliable.
CHOOSING WHAT TO PLOT

 Consider
  the relationship between the pressure and
volume of a gas (IA – Boyle’s Law). The ideal gas
equation is:

 PV = nRT

 This can be rearranged to give a straight line graph when

P is plotted against :
 CHOOSING WHAT TO PLOT CONT…
 The pressure is inversely proportional to the
volume. This becomes clear when the graph is
plotted and it gives a straight line passing
through the origin.
USING LOG SCALES
 In Topic 8 the pH scale condenses a wide range of H+(aq)
concentrations into a more manageable range. It is also
useful when looking a successive ionisation energies on
a log scale.

 Log scales allow some relationships to be rearranged

into the form of a straight line. Consider the following
two examples:

 Rate law – Orders of Reaction – Topic 6

 Arrhenius Equation – Activation Energy – Topic 6

 THE ORDER OF REACTION
A

  reaction follows the following rate law:

 Where, n is the order with respect to A and k is the rate constant.

 Taking logarithms on both sides:

 Therefore ln rate (y-axis) can be plotted against ln [A] (x-axis) which gives a
straight line with a gradient of n and a vertical intercept of ln k.
 ACTIVATION ENERGY
 The
  Arrhenius equation relates the rate constant of a reaction to temperature:


 Where Ea is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant and T is temperature in Kelvin.

 Taking natural logs on both sides:

 A graph can be plotted of ln (k(T)) against () gives a straight line. The activation energy
can be calculated from the gradient ().
USING COMPUTERS TO PLOT GRAPHS
 Software like excel allows graphs to be plotted and
analysed, the equation for the best fit line can be found,
and other properties calculated.

 e.g. in rate experiments the gradient on the graph can show the
rate of the reaction.

 The closeness of the trend line to the data points is

indicated by the R2 value. An R2 of 1 represents a perfect
fit between the data and the line drawn through them and
a value of 0 shows no correlation.
 A WORD OF WARNING!
 Care

  needs to be taken when using these programs.

 The graph above shows that the set of data points can be joined by a best fit straight line
which only passes through the origin.

 Or a polynomial which gives a perfect fit as indicated by the R 2 value of 1.

 The polynomial equation is unlikely, to be physically significant. Any series of random points
can fit a polynomial of sufficient length, just as any two points define a straight line.
CORRELATION AND CAUSATION
6.1
Collision Theory and
Rates of Reaction
ESSENTIAL IDEA AND NATURE OF
SCIENCE
Essential Idea Nature of Science

 The greater the  The principle of Occam’s

probability that molecules
will collide with
sufficient energy and
proper orientation, the
higher the rate of
reaction.
razor is used as a guide to
developing a theory
 although we cannot directly
see reactions taking place
at the molecular level, we
can theorize based on the
current atomic models.
Collision theory is a good
example of this principle.
UNDERSTANDINGS AND APPLICATIONS
AND SKILLS
Understandings Applications and Skills

 The rate of reaction is  Analysis of graphical and

expressed as the change numerical data from rate
in concentration of a experiments.
particular
reactant/product per unit
time.
TIME AND RATE
When you try to measure how quickly
 


something occurs then the factor you look at is

time.

 However,if you want to compare two different

experiments you need to express it as a rate.

 A rate is expressed as per unit time or per second.

 The rate is taken as the reciprocal of time.

RATES AND CHEMISTRY
 In chemistry, the rate of reaction is used when studying chemical
reactions.

 As the reaction proceeds, reactants are converted into products and

so the concentration of reactants decreases as the concentration of
products increases. As can be seen in the graphs below.

 This change is known as the rate of reaction and it depends on how

quickly the concentration of either reactants or products changes
with respect to time.
RATES AND UNITS
 The
  rate of a chemical reaction is a measure of the
amount of reactants being converted into products per
unit amount of time.

OR

 It is expressed as: change in concentration per unit time

or mol dm-3 s-1.
EXTRA POINTS OF RATES
 

Using Δ to represent change in [R] for
reactant concentration and [P] for product
concentration. The rate can be expressed as:

 The negative sign in the reactant expression indicates

the reaction concentration decreasing. Although the
rate would be expressed as a positive value.
COMPARING TWO LINES
 In the graph below there are two lines for reaction A and B.

 This graph represents two different concentrations of reactant

against time.

 It can be seen that reactant concentration is decreasing quicker

in A than B (curve is steeper).

 The steepness or gradient of a curve is a measure of the change

in concentration per unit time therefore the rate of reaction.
 GRADIENTS ON CURVES
 On a straight line the gradient
is easy but on a curve which
is more common, the gradient
is not constant so it can only
be given for a particular value
of time.

 It can be measured by taking

the tangent of the curve for a
specified time point and
measuring its gradient.

 Remember that although the

gradient is negative the rate
would be expressed as a
positive value.
 RATES AT THE START AND THE END
 The shape of the curve
indicates that the rate of
reaction is not constant
during the reaction, at the
beginning it is higher than at
the end.

 The rate is larger at the start

because the reactant
concentration is highest.

 Due to the change in rate,

usually when rates are
compared the initial rate is
compared (t=0).