CULTIVATION

Extrinsic factors affecting

cultivation
Extrinsic factors affecting cultivation

Selection
Mutation
Polyploidy
Hybridization
Chemodemes
Plant growth regulators
Plant diseases
 Selection
Based on
Increased yield
Increased secondary metabolites
Increased resistance
Desired characters
Mutation and Polyploidy
 Genes
a gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA or 
RNA that encodes the synthesis of a 
gene product, either RNA or protein.
Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of
a nucleoside and a phosphate.
 nucleoside consists simply of a nucleobase (also
termed a nitrogenous base) and a five-carbon
sugar (ribose or 2'-deoxyribose
Nucleotides are composed of three subunit molecules: a 
nitrogenous base (also known as nucleobase), a 
five-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and a
phosphate group consisting of one to three phosphates.
The four nitrogenous bases in DNA are guanine, adenine, 
cytosine and thymine; in RNA, uracil is used in place of
thymine.
nucleosides can be phosphorylated by specific kinases in
the cell on the sugar's primary alcohol group (-CH2-OH)
to produce nucleotides. Nucleotides are the molecular
building-blocks of DNA and RNA.
three types of nucleobases are pyrimidine
derivatives: cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil
 (U).
 Mutation
Sudden or abrupt changes in the genotype
causing qualitative or quantitative changes
in the genome or genetic material in DNA
of an organism which is heritable
2 types
•Natural Mutations
•Artificial Mutations
•Chromosomal Mutations
•Point Mutations
•Cytoplasmic Mutations
•Spontaneous Mutations
 Types of mutation
On the basis of origin( causing factors)

 Natural Mutations
 Artificial Mutations/Induced mutations
 Spontaneous Mutations
Natural Mutations
Occur itself in the plants in order to
survive at different temp.,
envi.changes, etc
Ex. Cactus, aloe vera : decreased
transpiration
Oenothera gigan : increased length
Oenothera nanella : dwarf plants
 Artificial /Induced mutations
• The mutation which are caused artificially in the
living organisms are called induced mutations.
• Under experimental or artificial conditions
induced mutations are caused.
• Any physical or chemical agent which introduces
mutation in an organism is a mutagen or
mutagenic agent.
 Artificial Mutations

Done y using physical agents like x-rays,

gamma rays, UV rays, EMR, ionising
radiation.
Chemical agents that cause mutations :
HCHO
2-aminopurine
Nitrous acid
N2 mustard
Sulphanilamide
5-bromo uracil
 Spontaneous mutation
• Spontaneous mutations are those that arise
occasionally in the absence of a known cause,
i.e., without exposure to external agents.
• These mutations may result from errors in
DNA replication, or from the action of
transposons, or even from the effect of some
mutagenic agents present in the environment.
 Spontaneous Mutations

These mutations occur in bacteria

virus or any organisms due to
unknown reasons
 Advantages of mutations

To get increased yield

To get increased secondary
metabolites
To get resistance against various
plant diseases
To get variation in chemical
constituents
Types of mutation (on the basis of origin)

• Mutation is of three types –

i) Gene mutations or point mutations
ii) Chromosomal mutations
iii) Cytoplasmic mutations
– Gene mutations -include changes in the structure
or composition of genes whereas
– chromosomal mutations or chromosomal
aberrations involve changes in the structure or
number of chromosomes
i) Gene mutation or Micromutation or Point
mutation
It is caused due to change in the structure of the
individual gene of DNA molecule. It results due to
change in nucleotide sequence of DNA molecule at
particular region of chromosome.It involves just one or
two bases in DNA molecule. Hence it is also called
point mutation.
 Point Mutations

Occur due to alteration of sequence of

basepair
Purines AG
Transitional Mutations : replacement of
similar base pairs
A with G or C with T or vice versa
Transversional Mutations : Replacement
of purine with pyrimidine or vice versa
 Gene mutation or Point Mutation

• Sickle Cell
disease is the
result of one
nucleotide
substitution
• Occurs in the
hemoglobin
gene
 Cytoplasmic Mutations

Mutations occurs due to variation in

genes present in cytoplasm
 Chromosomal Mutations

Mutations occurring due to variation in

Chromosomes
May be due to insertion of
Chromosomes, deletion of Chromosomes,
or duplication of Chromosomes
 Chromosomal Aberrations
• It is caused either called
– A) chromosomal aberrations by change
in structure of chromosomes or
– -B) Genomatic mutation of ploidy (Change in
chromosomal number)
• B. Changes Involving Change in the
Structure of Chromosomes:
• Some accidents sometimes occur which end
in the breaking-down of chromosomes. The
broken bits may get healed up or get re-
attached in a wrong way or may even get lost.
• structural modifications of chromosome occur
in nature or by harsh treatment, chiefly by X-
rays and other ionising radiations.
 Genomatic mutation or ploidy
• Mutations caused by the change in number of
chromosomes is called ploidy or genomatic
mutation.
• It occurs mainly of two types-
– Aneuploidy and Euploidy
 Euploidy
• It includes the addition or loss of complete
one set of chromosomes.
• An organism with the basic chromosome
number 7, may have euploids with
chromosome number 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42.
Euploids are further of different types –
monoploids, diploids and polyploids.
 Polyploidy
• The specific numer of chromosomes is characteristic
feature of each species and is called genome which is
observed in all living organisms.
• The term euploidy is a type of ploidy (the number of
sets of chromosomes in a cell) in which genome
contains whole set of chromosomes, which include
monoploidy (one set of chromosomes), diploidy ( two
sets of chromosomes ) and polyploidy (>2 sets).when
the organism contains more than 2 genomes, it is called
polyploidy
Polyploidy occurs in multiple series of 3
(triploidy), 4 (tetraploidy), 5(pentaploidy),
6(hexaploidy) etc.
An organism having more than two sets of
homologous chromosomes is known as
polyploid and the phenomenon polyploidy. It
was discovered by Lutz. It is rarely found in
animals but is of general occurrence in
plants. eg in a diploid organism.
Polyploidy is caused through cell
generation, physical agents like x-rays,
centrifugation, temperature
chocks,chemical agents like colchicine,
veratrine, sulphanilamide, hexachloro
cyclohexane, mercuric chloride etc
 Mechanism
The chemical agents cause disturbance to mitotic
spindle of dividing diploid cell and cause, non-
segregation of already duplicated chromosome and thus
converts diploids into tetraploids.
The best known chemical to cause polyploidy is
colchicine which is obtained from Colchicum autumnale
(Liliaceae).
Colchicines prevents sister chromatids from separating
into daughter nuclei in anaphase. These chromatids
remains attached at their common centromere in c-
metaphase. The chromatids eventually separate but
remain in the same nucleus. Thus double number of
chromosomes occur. Hence, chromatid pairs are doubled
in second c-metaphase. Likewise cell undergoes one, two
or more rounds of DNA replication and causes polyploidy
 Applications
Increased yield of strawmonium crop by
60-150% in 4n form.
Plants like belladonna, lobelia, cinchona,
acorus, suill, cannabis, and poppy also
showed increase in respective
compounds in 4n form.
Some plants donot cause any change in
chemical constituents
Some plants like digitalis showed
decreased yield of glycosides
Triploid: Produced by intercrossing
diploids plants by tetraploid pants. The
plants in triploid conditions are usually
sterile
Tetraploid x diploid
Female plants male plants

Triploid
Citrullus vulgaris
(seedless watermelon)
Tetraploids : further divided into
• i) Auto-tetraploids
• ii) Allotetraploids
 Auto-tetraploids
These are having same sets of
chromosomes as they are fomed from one
diploid species which is then doubled or
defined as doubling of chromosomes
within a species
Ex. Trifolium alexandrium
It is the first Auto-tetraploid produced in
India. This variety gives 30% more green
fodder than the diploid variety
Suganda : 10% >V.O.than its diploid variety
 Advantages
Superior than diploid variety due to
increased yield
This method is compatible for plnts like
Nicotiana species
Tetraploids are larger in size compared
to diploids
 Disadvantages
Have high conc of water than diploids
Produce seedless fruits and sterile in
nature
New polyploids may contain undesired
characters
 Allo-tetraploids
These are having different sets of chromosomes
as they are formed from crossing two different
species or two different genera of same family.
This produces the first filial generation or F1
hybrids which are diploids in nature.
F1 hybrids contain one chromosome set from one
species an other from second species. When F1
hybrids are doubled by artificial method, fertile
tetraploids known as amphiploids are formed.
Hence amphiploids contain two diploid
chromosomal sets from two different species
Triticum aestivum x Secale cereale
2n=14 2n=14
AA BB

F1 hybrid
2n=14
AB

Doubling of
chromosomes

Tetraploid
Amphiploid
4n=28
AABB

Double diploid (DD)

 Advantages
1. The desired characters present in wild plants is
transferred to the cultivated plants during crossing.

2. It lead to the development of new croplike

Raphanobrassica (from Radish and cabbage)
Raphanus sativus X Brassica oleraceae
(Radish) (Cabbage)

F1 hybrids (n+n1)
Doubling of chromosomes

Raphanobrassica (Rabbage)
2n+2n1
 Advantages
3. They give rise to variant genes in
cultivated plants
4. Allotetraploids show more vegetative
growth, hence used to cultivate the
plants when roots and tubers are
desired.
5. Polyploids are more resistant to
mutational changes, weedicides,
irradiation etc
 Disadvantages
Less fertile
Decreased size
 Techniques of Inducing Polyploidy:

• 1. Decapitation:
• It has been found in various seedlings that if their tip is
removed or cut off by a sharp knife the callus is produced
which give rise to some polyploids.
• 2. Graft combinations:
• It has been observed that callus formation occurs during
the graft combinations i.e., 7% (fusion of stock and scion)
which may lead to some extent polyploidy – Winkler, 1916.
• 3. Radiations:
• Irradiation of vegetative and floral buds with X-rays, gamma
rays or ultra-violet rays, polyploidy may be brought in some
frequencies.
• 4. Temperature:
Application of heat and cold shocks to flowers at or near
the time of first division of zygote brings about polyploidy.
• 5. Hybridization:
It also to some extent brings about polyploidy.
• 6. Chemicals:
The most effective results have been obtained by
colchicine and this is now being widely used on all plant
species. There are various chemicals like chloral hydrate,
acenaphthelene, coumarine, vertanine sulphate cavadin,
vernatrine, ethyl mercury chloride, vitamin sulphate,
granosan, hydroxyquinoline and nitrous oxide etc.