1.

0 Axial Forces
☻1.1 Introduction and Revision (Browse: B,C & A – Chapters 1 & 2)

1.2 Bars Under Simple Tension – Elastic Behaviour

(Refer: B,C & A – Chapter 3)

P P

Simple geometry, to introduce

important concepts

1.3 Indeterminate Stress Systems

(Refer: B,C & A – Chapter 4)
a) Direct Method of Analysis When equilibrium
isn’t enough…
b) Superposition Method
1.2 Bars Under Simple Tension – Elastic Behaviour
(Refer: Benham, Crawford & Armstrong – Chapter 3)

As in all areas of science, a variety of people have made

significant contributions to the Mechanics of Materials.
The A-list:
1.2.1) Elastic Stiffness (Robert Hooke, 1648)
1.2.2) Material Properties (Thomas Young, 1810)
1.2.3) Mat. Props (Cont.) (Simon Poisson, 1825)
1.2.4) Hooke’s Law (Young & Poisson)
1.2.5) Temperature Strains (William Rankine, 1870)
1.2.6) Strain Energy (Carlo Castigliano, 1881)

Elastic deformation of materials will be the focus of this

course. Plenty of challenging problems in this area…
1.2.1 Stiffness (Robert Hooke, 1648)
(B,C & A – Section 3.3)
Robert Hooke was the first to experiment
with and define the stiffness of materials.
He suspended various masses from
springs, and measured the extension.

The force is proportional to

the extension of the spring.

He was also:
m • an architect • an astronomer
u • father of • a physicist
microscopy
 Limit of Bar
Proportionality A
Load
A (W)
Bar
B

W K

u Elastic Behaviour Extension

(u)
Hookes Findings: LOAD  EXTENSION
i.e. W  K u W
 K
Axial Stiffness u
(in Units of N/m)
K depends on: i) Material Properties
ii) Geometry of Bar (i.e. L and A)
1.2.2 Material Properties (Thomas Young, 1810)
(B,C & A – Section 3.4)
Thomas Young helped to develop the
theory of how materials deform elastically.
In particular, he defined an important
material constant, “Young’s Modulus”.

P P

L
Internal Normal Force (in Units of N/m2
Let Axial Stress,  
or Pascals (Pa))
C.S. Area
Change in Length
Let Axial Strain,  (Dimensionless)
Original Length
Consider a small element of this bar:

P P

L u
P
Fu (Normal Force=P)

P
Fu (Normal Force=P)

Fu Fu

Fu P u
  
A A L
Load (P)

A

Extension (u)

L E

Elastic Behaviour 
For Uniaxial Conditions: STRESS  STRAIN


   E or E

E is called “Young’s Modulus” or “Modulus of Elasticity”
Simple Tensile Test:

Sample

Extensiometer

Mild
Aluminium Concrete Wood Nylon Rubber
Steel
Young’s Mod
E 210 70 18.5 12.5 2.8 0.004
GPa
Example:
Consider the two bars under uniaxial tension below. Calculate (a)
the stiffness of each bar, and (b) Young’s Modulus of each material.
75 mm2

P P Load, P=10.5 kN
A Extension, u=0.2 mm
100 mm
25 mm2

P P Load, P=5.25 kN
B Extension, u=0.1 mm
100 mm

P 10500
(a)
K A K 3
 52.5 MN / m
0.2x10 Equal
u Stiffness
5250
B K 3
 52.5 MN / m
0.1x10
(b) By definition:
  P   L  PL
E     
  A   u  Au

10500  0.1
A E 6 3
 70 GPa
75 x10  0.2x10

5250  0.1
B E 6  3  210 GPa
25 x10  0.1x10

A Aluminium
B Mild Steel
1.2.3 Material Properties (Cont.) (Simon Poisson, 1825)
Poisson made important observations and (B,C & A – Section 3.5)
theories about lateral deflections of materials.

When a bar is placed in tension, lateral

contractions accompany the extension.

Initial
Shape
Final
Shape P A real math nut.

“His only passion

has been science: he
lived and is dead for
P it.”
Consider a bar under uniaxial tension:

v
y x v
x
u
w
x
w
z
Poisson found that under uniaxial tension: u

Strains in Y and Z-directions  Strain in X-direction

x
 y   x
i.e.
&  z   x

 is termed “Poisson’s Ratio”

E

y , z 0 x
Example: Consider the rectangular bar below under tension.

Find expressions for axial stiffness, and the axial and lateral deflections.

E, 
y
v d
u P P
w
x
z b
L
What are the normal stress and strain?

Load P x
P
x   & x  
Area bd E Ebd
• Extension (in X-direction):
P L
u  x  L  u
E  bd
 E, 
y
v d
u P P
w
x
z b
L
• Axial Stiffness (in X-direction):

P E   bd
K 
u L

For high K: X-sectional Young’s

area Length
Modulus
 E, 
y d
v
u P P
w
x
z b
L

• Lateral Contractions:
P
v   y  d    x  d 
Eb
P
w   z  b    x  b 
Ed
Young’s Modulus (E) and Poisson’s Ratio () are
MATERIAL PROPERTIES.

i.e. Can only be determined by experimental methods.

 Mild
Aluminium Concrete Wood Nylon Rubber
Steel
Poisson’s
Ratio 0.3 0.33 0.1-0.2 - 0.4 0.45-0.5
v

There exists a theoretical limit: 0.5 Constant volume

Common measurement method: The Tensile Test
y
P P
x
L u

x  P  L 
E    
 x  bt  u 
y
bxt
P P
x v

y z y  v  L 
 or      
x x x  b  u 
Example: Extension of a bar due to Self Weight
Consider a long bar hanging vertically, being deformed by gravity.
If the maximum stress in the bar is Max, what is the maximum length
of bar, LMax, and the total extension of this bar?

RAy
y
A
F y 0
L, A, , E,  Fyy(y)
x
Fyy  mass  accel
g
Fyy   Ay     g
FBD:

y Fyy   Ag y
B  y   g y
v
 RAy
Fyy
y 0 RAy
A
Fyy(y)
x

B
v

Fyy is maximum at y=L (Fyy=RAy)

Fyy,Max   AgL  y,Max
 LMax 
 y,Max   gL  g
Extension? Ray=(Ag)L
( y)  g
y   y
FBD: E E
A
Fyy

dy dy
By definition:
dv y
Fyy dv y 
dy B

 dv   y  dy 
 g
y  dy
v

E
L
v    y  dy  
L
 g y  dy g 2
 v L
0 0
E 2E
For a Mild Steel Wire, =7850 kg/m3, max=280 MPa, E=200 GPa
 y,Max g 2
LMax   3.6 km v  LMax  2.6 m
 g 2E

What about lateral contraction?

If the bar is circular in cross-section, and has a diameter D:

x 
dD
  y  
 g  y
D E

 dDMax  
 g D  L
E
1.2.4 Hooke’s Law (Young & Poisson) (B,C & A – Section 3.7)
Many devices are not as simple as a bar. How do the stress-strain
relationships look in 3D?
Due to x only:
y x
x x 
E
x  x
z  y   z    x  
E
y
Due to y only:
y
y 
E
z  y
 x   z    y  
E
Due to z only:
z
z 
E
 z
 x   y   z  
E
 y
y Due to x, y & z acting together:
x
z x x  y  z
x   
E E E
z Due to x Due to y Due to z

1

  x   x   y   z
E


similarly y 
1
E

 y   x   z  Hooke’s
Law

1

 z   z   x   y
E

The relations above are used to relate normal stresses and strains in
3D deformation problems. We will consider two common
applications of these relationships.
Application i) Conditions of Plane Stress:
e.g. y=0 y z
y
x x
x
z x
z
z y  0

  x  0;  y  0;  z  0;
From Hooke’s Law:
1
 x    x   z 
E
1
 z    z   x 
E
1 
 y   0   x   z    y    x  z 
E E
Example: Pressure vessel wall thickness.
Consider the steel pressure vessel shown below. Normal
stresses of 160 and 80 MPa are setup in the vessel wall.
Determine the change in thickness of the wall.

P x
z
 z  160 MPa
x
 x  80 MPa
t=4mm
z

Take: E=200 GPa Find t

=0.25
  z  160 MPa
y
x
x  x  80 MPa
z
t=4mm
z

From Hooke’s Law: (Plane Stress conditions, y=0)

t
t

  y  1  y   x   z
E

y 
1
200 x10 9
0  
 0 . 25   80 x10 6
   0 . 25   160 x10 6
 
0.25
y    240    300 x10 6

200x10 3


t   y  t  300 x10 6 4 mm    t  1.20x10 3 mm
Application ii) Conditions of Plane Strain:
e.g. y=0 y  0 z
y x x
x
z
z x
z y
  x  0;  y  0;  z  0;
From Hooke’s Law:
1
  1

 x   x   y   z ;  z   z   x   y
E E

1

 y  0   y   x   z
E

  y    x   z 
1
E

  x  1   2   x    1     z 
Example: Cube Test Rig.

A cube of material is placed between lubricated rigid walls in a

test fixture. Point loads P are applied using rigid plates, producing
a state of uniform compression in the x direction.
• Determine the stresses y and z, and strains x, y and z.

Conditions of Plane Strain exist:  y  0

First, what is x? Load P

x   2
Area b
• As constrained in y-dir:  y  0
• No constraint in z-dir:  z  0
P
b2 0
P
• Finding y :  y    x   z   y  2
b

P P
b 2
b2 0
• Finding x : x 
1
E

 x   y   z ; 
 x 
P
Eb 2
1   2
 
 P P
0 b 2
b2
• Finding z :
1

 z   z   x   y
E

P
  z   2 1   
Eb
 (B,C & A –
1.2.5 Thermal Strains (William Rankine, 1870) Section 3.6)
A Scottish engineer, Rankine made observations
about the expansion and contraction of materials due
to changes in temperature.
He noted that these deflections were proportional to
the change in temperature the material experienced .
y
To  T i.e. T  T
o  T 
x y T 

  x   T 
y  y   T 

x x  T 
=Coefficient of Linear Expansion (A material property)
 From Hooke’s Law: y T 
(Due to Forces and
Temperature Changes)
Thermal
Mechanical Strain Strain y

1
 
  x   x   y   z   T 
E
x x  T 
1
 
 y   y   x   z   T 
E
1
 
 z   z   x   y   T 
E
Mild
Aluminium Concrete Wood Nylon Rubber
Steel
Coef Th expan
 12 23 10.8 - 0.9 130-200
x 10-6/oC
Example: Consider a bar constrained between two walls.

To  T   T 
b
y
Rx Rx
E, ,  d
x

L (fixed)
u=0  x  0
From Hooke’s Law:

x 
u
L
1
 
 0   x   y   z   T 
E
But, y  z  0
1
  x  0    x   0    0     T 
E
  x  E T 
And,
1
 y    z    0   x   0     T 
E


  y    x   T 
E

 y    z    1     T 

i.e. d   1     T   d

b   1     T   b
L  0
If a steel bar has a maximum axial  T  Max
stress of 300 MPa, what is the
greatest allowable temperature
increase?
E, , , Max
E=200 GPa
=0.25
=12x10-6 1/oC   T  Max  ?
  x  E T 
  x ,Max  300 x10 6
 T  Max    125 o
C
E 200x10   12x10 
9 6

 ve T  ve T
+ve (T) i.e. HOT Compression
-ve (T) i.e. COLD Tension
1.2.6 Strain Energy (Carlo Castigliano, 1881)
(B,C & A – Sections 3.9 & 3.10)
Castigliano related deformations due to forces
applied to elastic bodies, to energy stored in that
body (i.e. stored elastic potential energy).
Recall from Engineering Mechanics that energy
stored in a spring during deformation is:

1 2 x
 Ve  kx
2 F
P
(F) Strain
Energy can be stored due to tension,
Energy, U compression, bending or torsion.

For uniaxial stress, stored energy is the

area under the P vs u graph.
(x) u
 A P
y P P
Strain
L Energy, U
x

Work done by P=Strain Energy Stored

1 u
i.e. U  P  u (i.e. Area under the P vs u graph)
2
P   x A & u  x L

1 1
i.e. U   x A   xL   x  x  A  L 
2 2
x
with  x 
E
1
  x  AL 1
  x  Volume 
2
 U  U
2
2E Volume 2E
Example: Impact Loading
Impactive, or dynamic, loading cause stresses and deformations
in excess of those due to static loading.
Energy methods can be used to study these problems.

Consider the vertical structure shown. If a

mass M is dropped a height h, what will be
L, A, E,  the maximum stress in the rod?

h Conservation of Energy:
  P.E.   S.E.
umax
   P.E.   S.E.

1
i.e.  Mg   h  umax    x ,Max  AL 
2
L, A, E,  
2E
1
 Mg   h  maxL  2E x ,Max  AL
2
  

max 1
h   x ,Max  AL
2
Mgh  Mg L 
E 2E
umax 2  2Mg   2Mg  h  E 
 max  max   0
 A   AL 

Mg   2hAE  
max  1   1   
A   MgL  
 
 Mg   2hAE  
max  1   1   
L, A, E,  A   MgL  
 

Mg
NOTE: Static Load  Max 
A
h
Consider a suddenly applied load (i.e. h=0)
(Least damaging case!)
umax
Mg
 Max  2
A

Minimum “Factor of Safety” = 2

 1
  x  Volume 
2
Example: Energy Storage  U
2E
Consider the two bars shown below. What are their capacities for
energy storage?

L L
L
2 2
A

A A B 2A
1 1 2 L
  A  AL
2
UA  UB   B  A  
2E 2E  2
2
1  B   L
     2A  
2E  2   2

1 3
 B  AL  
2
 UB 
2E 4
 1 1 3
  A  AL  B  AL 
2 2
UA  UB 
2E 2E 4
For same  in A & B (i.e. A = B):

3
UB  UA
4
For same U in A & B (i.e. UA = UB):

3
 A  B  0.87B
2
NOTE: For HIGH energy storage CAPACITY:

E Low; Volume High;

max High
Avoid geometric discontinuities
Avoid impactive or suddenly applied loading
 1.2.7 Summary
From considerations of equilibrium we establish the loads applied to a
device. In a simple geometry, we have considered how internal forces
are related to stress. Material properties relating stresses to strains.

APPLIED LOAD Load Carrying

(External Forces & System
Reactions)
•Normal Forces
Equilibrium
Internal •Shear Forces
Forces •Bending Moments
•Twisting Moments

MATERI Stresses E, , 
& Strains
AL Hookes Law
PROPER
TIES
DEFORMATION & STIFFNESS